Behavior Observation Report

Cody, my nine-year old cousin, was observed during a period of interaction with his 42-year old mother and some of his peers who are generally at the same age as he is. The observation was conducted at their home during the free time of the boy in the afternoon. Observation Cody was playing along with his peers and sharing his Playstation 2 console with the group. A moment came when Cody was directly playing against one of his peers, then his mother suddenly called him and instructed him to go to the kitchen in an agitated tone. Cody seemed really annoyed for a while but eventually came to his mother to listen to what she had to say.Cody asked for what reason he was called for. His mother suddenly became quite agitated while pointing to some dirty clothes lying on the floor. His mother then shouted at him, â€Å"What’s wrong with you? All you do when you get to play with your friends is forget about how to do things properly. Why did you change your clothes and leave them at places where they should not be found? Clean up your mess now! † Cody obliged although evidently angry as seen through his facial expression. After hastily completing the task, he went back to his friends and continued the game.After a few minutes, his mother came to their play area and immediately shouted, â€Å"What is this mess all about? I spend every morning tidying up this place and you and your friend constantly ruin the arrangements and make everything so dirty. Clean this place this instant! † Cody was infuriated at that point and shouted â€Å"shut up! † while cleaning the place when his mother finally left the place. Upon hearing the voice of his mother, I observed that his mood changes from relatively friendly to an irritated one. Expectedly, his mother called him again. Cody was obviously murmuring â€Å"shut up!† over and over as he went towards his mother. Incidentally, upon seeing Cody, his mother said, â€Å"Would you like some snacks? â €  Cody just nodded, apparently still showing quite an angry face and mood. He got the chocolate bar and went back to watching television. Another similar scenario occurred, wherein he was irritated by the call of his mother even though she just offered him some juice. Observer Response In the context of classical conditioning (CC), a primary or unconditioned stimuli (US) and the secondary or conditioned stimuli (CS) are both defined as vital parts of the learning process.In relation to these, the conditional response (CR) and unconditional response (UR) are of course also present. The primary or unconditioned stimulus is the events of scolding of his mother. The unconditional response, as a result, is the hostility and anger that Cody expresses during these scolding events. Due to the fact that such events occur at quite an often interval, Cody was observed to exhibit the same reactions towards his mother that he expresses during scolding events, even if such events are not yet occurring.For instance, hostility and anger are exhibited even at times when Cody simply hears the voice of his mother. Thus, the secondary or conditioned stimulus is the voice of his mother. Although definitely related to the events wherein he is reprimanded, it does not necessarily mean that each time his mother calls him, he would get yelled at. This is well understood during the events wherein even though his mother did not reprimand him, upon hearing her voice, Cody entered quite an aggressive state. It is also worthy to note that even though Cody accepted both offers of refreshments, he never shifted to a more pleasant outlook.The presence of a consistent expression of irritation upon hearing his mother’s voice regardless of reason has become a conditional response in this case. Since the response, which involves signs of anger and related emotions, is exhibited regardless of the unconditional stimuli, which are basically the scolding events, it can then be inferred tha t CC occurred. Also, it is important to keep in mind that the neutral stimulus, his mother’s voice, has completely become the CS, which further proves the presence of CC.Opinion CC, otherwise known as Pavlovian conditioning, is considered to be one of the pioneer concepts of learning. Currently however, it has definitely lost much of its appeal upon the conceptualization of operant conditioning, which serves a more common role and purpose in society as it is seen to be more applicable in general. Usually viewed for its applications on animals, CC was actually developed from experiments using a dog; thus, the way of thinking regarding CC is rather understandable.The real reason as to why it is considered more for training animals is that animals commonly have a noncomplex method of thinking. This suggests that due to the complex ability and capability of human reasoning, CC is not that effective. Even with the points stated, it is still undeniable that humans are capable of be ing affected with CC. As with the observed trend in the emotional state of Cody, by simply hearing the voice of his mother, it seems that CC occurs at more common scenarios than usually thought.Although there is a possibility for Cody to think about the fact that hearing his mothers voice does not always result in negative scenarios, his frequent exposure to such seems to have caused him to react to it in a fixed manner. Therefore, even though mainly associated with zoological applications as stated, the CC theory still holds true even for humans for certain cases and is probably manifested through various emotional responses in more common ways than usually considered.

Liabilities of a Director Essay

A company is usually established by individuals or Directors (officers included) in this case so as to run it in appropriate manner in order to make maximum profits. For this to happen, it is for the company (Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd in our case) to enter or make contracts with outsiders like Kaplan Bank Ltd and Space Solutions Pty Ltd as far as our case is concerned. The contracts made by the company with other outsiders are usually done by Directors who are, most often than not, act as representatives of that mentioned company and be able to be liable by the acts of its Directors as stated in s126. Directors acting on behalf of the company during any contracts are usually in a crucial position of trust within that company, and therefore, the vast array of legal duties will stretch out on their shoulders for holding that position. Due to this hot position, it is easier than not, for their powers to be abused in different ways. Directors have been known to abuse their powers in office for their personal gain. For example, Directors have been held liable for inappropriately using company’s funds in making their personal secret profits. In such cases, the corporate law comes into play (the Common Law and the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth)) and Directors or any other officer who recklessly breach specific duties and obligations should be prosecuted in the court of law. So for the purpose of liability, the common law and the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) have been laid down so as to minimize the risk of wrongful behaviors by company’s Directors. In this paper, I will discuss the responsibilities, liabilities and duties of a director(s) in a company and give examples how Directors of various companies have been accounted or held responsible for infringing Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) laws. Directors’ Duties Since companies are usually established and managed by directors and a number of officers, these directors have that ostensible authority, collectively, to represent that mentioned company and not as an individual Director. As I am going to talk about it below, some individual directors (Andrew and Brian in this case) have been known to enter in to some kind of contract with outsiders (other companies) and not collectively as board of directors, as allowed under s201J and s198D of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Directors, in most cases, have contravened these sections of the Act because they have their own material personal interests outside the company and have disowned their â€Å"duty to act honestly and in good faith to the best interest of the company† as per Part 2D.1 of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Directors can only avoid the civil or criminal penalties for breaching the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) only if they fully understand their liabilities and duties (Sieve rs, 1997 and Cassidy, 2006). Some of Corporations Acts laws, which directors need to be watchful for, in order to avoid contravening Corporations Act laws, are and not limited to: 1. Act in good faith and honest for the best interest of the company. 2. By considering company’s interests ahead of their own. 3. Avoiding conflicts of duty and interest. 4. Duty to avoid insolvent trading by the company 1. Duty to act honestly and in good faith to the best interest of the company As far as s181 of Corporations Acts 2001 (Cth) is concerned, any director including Andrew and Brian in our case, have to act â€Å"in good faith and in the best interest of the company (Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd)† (see Darval v North Sydney Brick and Tile Co (1988) 6 ACLC 154) and not for their personal intentional purposes. In our case, before resigning, Brian set up his own jewellery business so that he can engage in a lucrative business of supplying jewellery to his new friend Victor after resigning from Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd. Brian, under Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) s.184, may have infringed the statutory duties that are found in ss.181-183, and therefore liable for civil or criminal penalties as per Corporations Act laws (Sievers, 1997 and Cassidy, 2006). 2. Duty not to improperly use the position of a director to gain any personal benefits As contained in s182 of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth), directors must demonstrate their powers for the required purposes so that companies like Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd for example can benefit and those directors who violate s180 of the Corporations Act law Sbe penalized or disqualified in the court of law as was illustrated in the case of Mills v. Mills (1938) 60 CLR 150 (Cassidy, 2006). In our case, the exercise of power by Brian to secure some personal advantage by starting his own jewellery business, is considered as an ‘improper purpose’ because it is not within the purpose of benefiting Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd, but to himself (see Mills v. Mills (1938) 60 CLR 150, Biala Pty Ltd v. Uallina Holdings (No 2) (1993) and ASIC v. Adler (2002)). Eventually, Brian will be responsible for any financial benefit he might have received as the head of Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd (see Queensland mine Ltd v Hudson (1978) 18 ALR 1) (Cassidy, 2006, p. 251). 3. Avoiding conflicts of duty and interest. The conflict of interest is a matter for all board of directors that does not only affect specific directors in the company. According to section 182 and 183 of the Corporations Act, any misuse of director’s position just for the disadvantage of the company and for the benefit of the director is generally forbidden by the law (see Aberdeen Railway Co. v. Blaikie Bros (1854). If some sections like s191 to s195 of the Corporation Act is analyzed further, it details some important rules on how Directors (Brian included) are supposed to disclose or declare to the board of directors, if there is any personal interest that is related to the affairs of the company. This is required so as to ensure that the honesty and integrity of directors are thoroughly observed (Cassidy, 2006). As far as our case is concerned, Brian may have violated s181 of the Corporations Act, for he did not declare or disclose to the board of directors that he has some interest of starting is own business as required under s191 (3) and he may be prosecuted in the court of law for not declaring his interest. 4. Duty to prevent insolvent trading by the company Corporate regulators have tried many means to make sure that there are no companies that can trade while insolvent by imposing higher level of liability on directors. As per s588G of the Corporations Act, civil penalties and personal liability on directors have been imposed on them if in case a company incur a debt and is declared insolvent. An example of a case where directors were liable for the company’s insolvency was that of Commonwealth Bank of Australia v Friedrich. Here, Maxwell Eise who was a director was fined millions of dollars for causing the company to undergo insolvency. The court argued that Maxwell Eise (Brian and Andrew in our case) had breached s588G of the Corporations Act and was liable for debts incurred by the company because his failure to prevent it. If in case directors of companies like Pandora Diamonds and Gems Pty Ltd have acted criminally and believed to be dishonest, in which may harm the company because of their self personal advantage, ASIC with the assistance of Australian Federal Police, criminal investigation can be conducted and tough procedures has to be followed when collecting evidence that will be use to determined as to whether a prosecution should go a head. And if the case is found to be more serious, it will be handled with the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecution; otherwise the lower courts will deal with these kinds of cases. All in all, directors should carefully study, understand and appreciate their duties and responsibilities that they are subject to as company bosses. Being a director of a company is not an easy task because there are several fiduciary duties that need to be adhered to.

Stress in the workplace Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stress in the workplace - Research Paper Example They have achieved it on the cost of their personal and social life. The urge to remain employed has caused the employees to endorse the culture of work-life imbalance. The whole effort of the employees is concentrated at increasing the productivity. Since the time is limited, employees have no option but to sacrifice their private life for the work. This is the reason why employees do not find time to spend with the family. While on one hand, this is distorting the employees’ relations with their families, on the other hand, it is also affecting their performance as continued work without breaks and rest declines an individual’s mental and physical efficiency. In addition to that, the ones who have managed to remain employed have been assigned the job responsibilities of the employees that have been terminated, which has essentially increased the work load for the remaining employees manifolds. Since the effects of economic recession are not limited to the workplace, t he employees have to deal with the inflation and increased rates of things of everyday use. There is so much to purchase in a very limited salary, that an employee always runs short of money. Stress in the workplace is one of the most important causes of increase in employees’ depression and anxiety. Some employees have been stressed to the point that they have attempted suicide. â€Å"[Employees] come to work and tell a manager or colleague that they are thinking of harming themselves. They are texting, calling, instant-messaging. Or they’ll disclose they’ve made an attempt. Some have even tried to kill themselves at work† (LeBlanc cited in Mirza, 2012). Stress in the workplace has distorted the employees’ relations with the family members, particularly with the spouses.

Customer Relationship Management in Youi Company Essay

Customer Relationship Management in Youi Company - Essay Example This strategy involves division of the market base using diverse variables, which include age, education, culture, occupation, location and socio-economic status among others. Youi insurance stormed the Australian market and launched its products with the aim of reaching every segment of the customer base. The company personalized insurance and defined the risks more accurately. This strategy allowed Youi insurance company to reach the new but low risk customer segments, which were not previously targeted by other insurers (Carr, 14). These segments included the white-collar commuters who commuted by public service transport to the city for work. Customized media approach was used to reach diverse groups accordingly. For instance, the company targeted the bus and train stations and quenched the traveler’s thirst during the summer mornings with customized bottles of water. Similarly, weekday and daytime TV media advertisements reached the customer segment in homes. This strateg y reached and attracted numerous customers (Carr, 14). A vigorously integrated information and technology system has reached the customer market. This has eased provision of insurance products and communicating with the customers more easily. This study establishes that, Youi uses its integrated information and technology system to transact. This implies that most of the customer requests are done online.According to this study, provision of personalized and cheap insurance retained the customer segments acquired.... Similarly, weekday and daytime TV media advertisements reached the customer segment in homes. This strategy reached and attracted numerous customers (Carr, 14). A vigorously integrated information and technology system has reached the customer market. This has eased provision of insurance products and communicating with the customers more easily. This study establishes that, Youi uses its integrated information and technology system to transact. This implies that most of the customer requests are done online. Retention of the Acquired customer base According to this study, provision of personalized and cheap insurance retained the customer segments acquired through the campaigns and media advertisement (Carr, 14). The Youi Company ensured that the customers understand the finer details of the insurance products provided. Correspondingly, the prices offered remained affordable. Notably, the Youi insurance has gone a notch higher in market orientation. This implies that, the company is focused upon the desires of the customers (Insurance in Australia, 6). The needs of the clients are addressed in a three-level of a product, which include the tangible product, core product and associated benefits and the augmented product (customer service). This trend retained and expanded the customer market. The National Model Railroad Association (NMRA) NMRA is one of the oldest insurance companies in Australia with over 150 branches across the globe. NMRA enjoys a hearty customer relationship management (CRM) system. NMRA uses the aspect of information technology in reaching and retaining its customer base. The database interconnects all the branches across

The Automotive Industry in the United States Essay

The Automotive Industry in the United States - Essay Example Most of the Japanese, Korean and India companies have assemblies in the U.S. such as Chrysler-Toyota, Hyundai Mercedes among others. Moreover, more companies are coming to set up manufacturing plants due to the highly demanding market in the country. The latest company to come to the U.S. is Volkswagen in 2011 (The Automotive Industry in the United States). The automotive industry has different sectors that define the success of the industry. The industry has an engine plant that solely manufactures engine for the companies. In addition, the companies have separately and jointly owned research and development department that researchers on the effective way of producing vehicles at cheap costs and for a better environment. In addition, the industry I characterized by design and testing autonomous departments. The automotive industry contributes approximately 4% to the country GDP. In addition, the industry directly employs 786,000 as of the end of 2012 (The Automotive Industry in the United States). Moreover, the automotive industry employs a high percentage of an indirect employee through distribution, suppliers and other service sectors. In 2012, the industry supplied vehicles and other parts for $225 billion to other countries of the world (The Automotive Industry in the United States). In total, the automotive industry is estimated to provide 3.62 million employment in the country as of 2012. For this reason, the automotive industry is viewed as the best manufacturing sector compared to other industries. The industry faces the problem of polluting the environment as most of the vehicles are made to use petroleum. The industry, therefore, faces a tough time researching for efficient vehicles that are made to use efficient energy.  

Visual Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Visual Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example This essay focuses on analyzing visual documents, including pictures and diagrams that usually communicate or relay their messages using images and text-image interactions. Authors, photographers or artists of visual documents think no differently. The researcher states that designers are always involved in different and several practices that include taking photographs, making websites, and laying pamphlets. They usually take good care and ensure that their work does not lack the important and crucial visual appealing, as well as, the rhetorical effectiveness. This essay looks into succinct analysis of the photo provided using the various and common aspects of photo analysis. These aspects include color and color ratio, photo subject and its positioning, lighting, camera angle, and the photo framing. In conclusion, the researcher states that it is true that the author of the photo had immense creativity when he came up with the photo. His mission was to ensure that his message is pa ssed in a pictorial manner. Finally, the photo can also serve as a representation of any society in the world. They are the majority, and are responsible for the choice of leadership, as well as, their decisions. The leaders are represented by the bricked section of the wall. It is smallest, but that is just okay for them. They misuse their leadership power interfering with the common person. Reaction against them from the common person always make them fail. Generally, the picture is a representation of a non-ideal society.

Professionalism and the accounting profession Essay

Professionalism and the accounting profession - Essay Example The last section provides a personal interpretation of accountancy as a profession. Accountancy as a Profession The rise of professionalism in the United Kingdom is an issue that has gained much emphasis in the literature. The discourse comprises basic issues like what makes up a profession and how professionalism is attained (Lal, 1988). The discourse about how professions have reached their current status has evolved significantly over time, somewhat demonstrating different ideological or theoretical perspectives. Until the 1960s, the dominant theoretical perspective among social scientists exploring the professions was structural-functionalism or functionalism (Jones, 1995). They, largely inspired by the works of Emile Durkheim, look at the role of certain phenomena in cultural and social processes. Structural-functionalism assumes that the development of institutions and, for that matter, professions, usually was a normal outcome of the fact that they played functional or purpose ful roles in society (Roslender, 1992). This explanation, when used in the discourse of the professions, involved examining the array of functions carried out by professionals, and resulted in a complementary and imperceptive traits-based model of the professions. The trait-based paradigm comprises a set of theoretically distinct characteristics or qualities, like responsibility and broad knowledge, which are believed to embody the core attributes of a profession. The trait model is characterised by a particular disagreement amongst its advocates as regards the exact arrangement of components distinctive to professions (Larson, 2012). This is a problem which the ahistorical functionalist model of the professions has successfully avoided. Functionalists believe that the core elements of a profession are commonly restricted to those believed to be of practical or purposeful importance for the client-professional relationship or the society in general (Roslender, 1992). The manner in w hich accountancy has attained its professional status is also the emphasis of contemporary literature and debate. Most of the established histories of accountancy are classified under functionalism (Cherreson, 2003). Several scholars have argued that the histories of major professional accountancy organisations, like the Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors (ICWA) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW), â€Å"tend to assume not only that accountants are supremely necessary to society but also that the major factor enabling their current success has been their form of professional association† (Matthews, Anderson, & Edwards, 1998, p. 4). Furthermore, according to Matthews and colleagues (1998), several British scholars view accountancy as evidently an essential instrument for guaranteeing the most favourable yield or best productivity in any economy. According to trait-based perspective, the emergence of professional organisations w as a natural, and smooth, development intended to furnish professionals with the training or education needed to help them carry out vital functions in society. Because the title ‘profession’ was mostly confined to law, medicine, and the Church until the early 19th century, professions were eventually characterised as altruistic, functional, institutions (Brown,

Project Deliverable 6B PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Project Deliverable 6B - PowerPoint Presentation Example These assumptions are: The timeline is reasonable and do-able. The phased rollout supports early success and continued improvement. The project includes a lengthy implementation as components are developed and implemented, followed by sustained competency and improvements in the seven component areas. The following is a detailed breakdown of the roles required to execute the project. It includes: the project role, the project responsibility of the role, skills required, number of staff required fulfilling the role, the estimated start date and the expected duration the staff resource will be needed on the project. Organization can adopt security guidance into its general project management processes or react to security failures. It is increasingly difficult to respond to new challenges with the new installation of security system in project management processes. This security system has to be well fit with the project management. This coordination of activities considering the infrastructure of the project requires different assumption and troubleshooting area to change and adjust on fact based activation. In such case Trustworthy Computing Security Development Lifecycle provides an example of pragmatic way to incorporate the objective of development. The level of assurance influences aspects of project management. Security access alarm is obligatory Access to corporate information may have to satisfy legal, regulatory, or fiduciary duties, contractual obligations, or voluntary requirements such as the protection of proprietary data. Those requirements raise the importance of security governance, i.e., the incorporation of security into business management. Security governance is typically associated with systems that require medium or higher assurance. Successful security governance depends on developing control and feedback structures. In the midmarket company managed security services, they need that level of security beyond the resources and

Black Power Mix Tape Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Black Power Mix Tape - Movie Review Example Davis argues that any movement would require a focus towards its goals and the achievement of these goals needed to be done through means that were available to the resisting community. Davis points out the hypocrisy of the government, members of whom make incendiary comments against the African American community and in the same breath accusing the African American community of violence. Davis’s grouse against such comments stems from the institutional violence that African Americans have to face on a daily basis, leading to reduced economic and political opportunities. Diane Ravitch argues that society as a whole, if it is to be an educated one, would have to preserve its integrity (Ravitch). This idea can be connected to Davis’s notion of revolution. Revolution, for Davis, is for the establishment of a society that has integrity. The very notion of revolution too is characterized by its honesty, as far as Davis is

US Constitution and gun Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

US Constitution and gun - Research Paper Example However, not all these reasons have eliminated the numerous cases reported on a daily basis within the country of civilians’ improper usage of firearms. As such, civilian gun ownership led to a number of unnecessary deaths and injuries in the country. For instance, in most cases, the civilians cited that they needed to use these guns against fellow civilians in self-protection or to prevent a crime. Few of such cases rarely prove that the civilian had any justification to hold a gun against another civilian. Furthermore, the usage of guns in the United States has escalated to considerable levels whereby criminal gangs have ease of access to firearms for which to use in doing their criminal activity. This holds the entire country at ransom, as well as depreciates the level of security in the country. Many a times have irate minded, or persons with mental illnesses held civilians at hostage with firearms, and some even shot at innocent children and schoolteachers at an elementary school. As such, it is evident that civilian gun ownership requires a high level of discipline from the civilians. This is the key reason that civilians give for wanting to own private firearms. This is a valid reason especially considering the high rate of crime and insecurity within the country. It is no doubt that an individual will at one point come across a compromising situation that requires personal protection and self defense with the use of a gun, such as a rape scare for the women, a kidnap attempt for the rich, as well as a carjacking attempt for car and vehicle owners. For these reasons, a gun comes in handy, as the threatened individual will use it to protect himself or herself from the aggressor, and if lucky prevent the occurrence of a crime. Others keep guns in safekeeping at their homes for such cases of insecurity, especially in the event a burglar attacks their home and attempts to steal or make away with their property. The United

Second Hand Smoke Essay Example for Free

Second Hand Smoke Essay Second hand smoking has become a major problem in today’s society, and it must be changed. Although there are multiple solutions to second hand smoke some solutions include establishing separate ventilation systems in each and every restraint, planting more trees, and establishing more oxygen rich sources in areas where smoking is engaged and to ban smoking in outdoor areas. Every day between 70% and 90% of non-smokers in the American population, children and adults, are regularly exposed to secondhand smoke. It is estimated that only 15% of cigarette smoke gets inhaled by the smoker. The remaining 85% lingers in the air for everyone to breathe. (University of Minnesota, 2003). Every year tobacco use kills more than five million people every year, more than HIV, AIDS, Tuberculosis and malaria combined. (World health organization, Dec 2009). But it does not have to be this way, with a few simple changes thousands of lives could be saved. Smoking causes an estimated 90 % of all lung cancer deaths in men and 80 % of all lung cancer deaths in women (CDC, 2012). Smoking is also estimated to increase the risks of coronary disease and strokes by two to four times. CDC, 2012). But smoking also harms second hand smokers too, it is estimated that second hand somek contains over 4000 chemicals including more than 40 cancer causing agents and 200 known poisons (university of Minnesota, 2003). But should the innocent by stander really have to put his or her health at risk in order to allow the smoker to have stress control or satisfy their nicotine craving? Every day millions of families dine out at restraints across the country. Most of them having small children. Most restaurants have adopted a non smoking policy, but some still have not. For the restaurants that have not adopted a smoke free facility, they should have to implement separate ventilation, and separate sealed rooms, so the non smokers can still enjoy a fresh meal, and not have to worry about what is in the air they are breathing in. If separated sealed rooms so the non smokers can still enjoy a fresh meal, and not have to worry about what is in the air they are breathing in? If the separate ventilation systems were established, the major costs would be filters to maintain the system and ensuring smokers remained in the smoking section of the building. Other countries such as Ireland, Spain, New Zealand, Italy and Uruguay have all adopted smoke free establishments, and have had great success (World Health Organization, 2007). There is also no evidence that these bands have a negative economic impact on the hospitability sector (world Health Organization, 2003). The smoking section would have to be indoors to ensure that patrons that are outside of the restraint do not have to inhale cigarette smoke, many restaurants have a smoking area in front of their restraint, usually on a patio, but unfortunately smoke still lingers near the front entrance. And in most cases smoke still enters the inside of the restraint through sliding glass doors or tether non sealed entrances. My proposal would eliminate this problem by requiring sealed entrances, separate ventilation systems and not allowing smoking outside of the restraint entrances. One study has been conducted on separate ventilation systems removed some of but not all of the gas particles. (CDC 2012) The study also showed that ventilation systems did not remove all of the gas and particles from the cigarette smoke, but improved the air quality by 50 %. (CDC 2007). The substantial improvements from incorporation this would improve workers health, and the patrons that eat and or visit there. And in many ways it could improve the business for many establishments by catering to all patrons needs. Another proposal would be to establish smoking areas, and establish more oxygen rich sources such as trees, or plants around them. And in areas that this is not possible, I would propose to position an air filter in that area. To establish more oxygen rich sources such as trees, I would propose planting trees in the vicinity of the making areas, and issue grants encouraging businesses to plant more trees. And in places where this is not possible I would propose positioning massive air filters in the vicinity to recalculate the air, and clean out all the toxins. Thus smoking areas would be vastly improved. The only disadvantage of such proposal could be the cost of filters, cost of maintained and the possibility depending on the air purifier the noise coming from such filter. But the advantages would outweigh the disadvantages in the fact that something is being done about the second hand smoking. My last proposal would be to ban smoking in public all together. The benefits of such proposal would be enormous to not only the health of people but the environment. The health benefits of such proposal include better air quality, encouraging fellow citizens to quit smoking if they are smoking and decreased consumption of tobacco products (world health organization, 2003). According to the world health organization, only 100 % smoke free environments provide effective protection from second hand smoke (world health organization, 2003). Other benefits include lower medical costs, decreased risk of fires, higher productivity in the workplace and lower insurance premiums (world health organization, 2003). To enforce the ban on smoking fines could be implemented to discourage fellow citizens from smoking in public. The fines would have to be hefty enough to encourage smokers not to light up in public, and to encourage a healthier lifestyle. The fine would be between 250-300 dollars. And would be enforced by local police departments and other law enforcement. Such as substantial fine would discourage smokers from engaging in smoking in public places, and would also be steep enough to be taken seriously. Because most of the citiziens would not take a law seriously if it did not take from their pocket. Contrary to the belief, smoking bans do not infringe upon anyone’s rights as they are protecting peoples rights by regulating where to smoke, and where not to smoke. (World health organization, 2003). And they cost very little helping businesses and personal alike. In fact most smokers actually prefer a non smoking environment, and choose to eat at a smoke free environment (world health organization 2003). And once a smoker chooses to quit, it makes it easier to dine out at a smoke free restraint because it encourages them not to light up again. In conclusion smoking in public would dramatically increase the health of the nation as a whole. It has been shown that second hand smoke causes multiple health problems, and by encouraging a healthier lifestyle ti could dramatically improve the lives and health of all citizens involved. It has been shown that most smokers prefer a non smoking environment, and many smokers are encouraged to stop smoking after living in areas where smoking is banned. Most people in the world are non smokers and should not have to be exposed to second hand smoke, and smokers should have every opportunity afforded to them to quit.

Post Positivism History And Philosophy Psychology Essay

Post Positivism History And Philosophy Psychology Essay According to Cheek (2008, pp. 762-766) research design refers to the combination of three important and interrelated considerations requiring focused attention when formulating and conducting research; the theoretical foundations guiding research, data collection and analysis methods, as well as ethical concerns. Theoretical frameworks essentially provide a lens through which to examine and conduct research. Inherent to each framework are specific philosophical perspectives which inform and reflect the researchers ontological and epistemological views. The choice of theoretical framework will subsequently impact and guide decisions about research methods, which will then influence ethical considerations. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, as cited in Finlay Ballinger, 2006, pp. 16-17) identify four research paradigms underpinning the theoretical framework of a research project; positivist and post-positivist, constructivist-interpretive, critical, and feminist-post structural. While post-pos itivism is closely associated with the quantitative approach, interpretivism is embedded within the qualitative approach. Quantitative and Qualitative Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, p. 17) describe quantitative research as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦involving the collection of numerical data in order to describe phenomena, investigate relationships between variables, and explore cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena of interest. Quantitative data can be obtained from an extensive array of sources including experiments, randomised controlled trials, and structured observation. While quantitative data can be analysed using such methods as correlation, factor analysis, and psychometrics. At the most fundamental level, the quantitative research process is guided by application of the scientific method. This involves a set of structured steps through which the researcher moves in a logical and systematic manner to obtain knowledge, answer a question, or solve a problem (Baumgartner Hensley, pp. 9-11). While Haig (2010, p. 1326) identifies four dominant theories within the scientific method including the inductive and hypothetico-deductive me thods, Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, pp. 9-11) identify five basic steps inherent to this process: (1) Identifying the question; (2) Formulating a hypothesis; (3) Developing a research plan; (4) Collecting and analysing data; (5) Interpreting results and forming conclusions. Experimental research is characteristic of quantitative research. Accounting for independent variables, while identifying and classifying all other extraneous variables, the experimental researcher works to manipulate dependent variables with the aim of establishing direct (value-neutral, cause-and-effect) relationships between phenomena (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, pp. 159-162). Garwood (2006, p. 251) identifies advantages of the quantitative method as including, its ability to measure change over time; the generalizability of research findings; and the variability of statistical analysis which numerical data allows. However qualitative researchers have criticised the quantitative method in its traditional positivist philosophy for its inability to analyse the social constructs influencing relationships and phenomena under investigation (Garwood, p. 251). According to Sumner (2006, p. 249) qualitative research à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is concerned to explore the subjective meaning through which people interpret the world, the different ways in which reality is constructedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in particular contexts. Qualitative data can be obtained through various methods such as interviews, action research, surveys, and observation. While qualitative data can be analysed through a myriad of methods including discourse analysis, hermeneutical analysis, and content analysis. Despite this diversity of approach, Finlay and Ballinger (2006, pp. 6-8) identify five commonalities which all qualitative researchers acknowledge and value (p. 6). These include: the impact of researcher subjectivity on knowledge production; the importance of the researcher-researched relationship; a commitment to hypothesis-generation through exploration and induction as opposed to hypothesis-testing; the influence of social constructs upon subjective experience, beliefs, and int erpretations; as well as the ambiguous, multiple, and fragmented nature of reality which is constantly shifting and open to re-signification (Finlay Ballinger, p. 6). According to Munhall (2007, p. 6), the value of qualitative research lies in its ability to provide insight and meaning into the situated context of individual experience. Acknowledging the contextual and dynamic nature of reality, qualitative research also allows for in-depth analysis of complex phenomena. As outlined by Sumner (2006, p. 249), criticisms of the qualitative approach commonly refer to a supposed lack of rigour and generalizability. These comments, however, appear more to reflect the different philosophical and theoretical aims of the qualitative and quantitative approach. For example, while quantitative researchers attempt to examine phenomena objectively, qualitative researchers employ reflexivity; identifying and explicitly stating their subjective values and bias (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, p. 206). Further, while quantitative research is structured and rigorous in approach, establishing hypothesis and conducting experiments to test these, qualitative research is emergent; hypothesis are generated as the research process progresses with the development of new and unexpected patterns shifting the research focus (Baumgartner Hensley, pp. 202-203). Of importance, and as explicated by Sumner (2006, p. 249), qualitative research à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is often based upon interpretivism, constructivism, and inductivism. Thus, while quantitative research is primarily deductive, attempting to control, explain, and predict phenomena external of influence; qualitative research attempts to understand, explore, and describe phenomena from within the social and cultu ral constructions of the lived experience. Post-Positivism History and Philosophy Classical positivism emerged from the works of August Comte (1789-1875). Comte believed that empirical verification (observation and measurement) was the foundation of all scientific development (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 8). During the 19th Century classical positivism was reconceptualised through the work of philosophers from the Vienna circle into what became known as logical positivism. As Polifroni and Welch (1999, p. 8) explain, logical positivists aimed to eliminate all metaphysical considerations from within the scientific process. The possibility of theory was rejected, with claims to knowledge justified through observation of phenomena, which logical positivists believed could be examined external to its context (Munhall, 2007, p. 127). By obtaining theory-neutral facts, logical positivists maintained it was possible to obtain objective truth and develop Universal Laws to describe and predict phenomena. The 20th Century philosopher and critical realist Karl Popper (1902-1994) challenged the assumptions of logical positivists, arguing all attempts at objectivity were inherently subjective. For Popper all knowledge is provisional, conjectural, hypothetical (Thornton, 2013 (Spring Edition) para. 19). Thus, as Thornton (2013 (Spring Edition) para. 19) explicates, scientific theories cannot be empirically verified, only momentarily confirmed or empirically falsified. Furthermore, Popper believed metaphysical questions should be returned to scientific enquiry to enable deeper analysis of phenomena (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 67). By acknowledging the fundamental relativity and fallibility of knowledge claims and enabling the exploration of ontological concerns, Popper believed science could advance through the constant redevelopment of theories as informed by previous falsifications (what he termed verisimilitude) to gradually arrive at a position closer to the truth (Thornton, 2013 (Spri ng Edition) para. 20-30). Poppers philosophical observations represent the foundations of post-positivism. Interpretivism History and Philosophy Interpretivism has a long, rich, and complex history which is compressed and rather succinctly explained by Scwandt (1994, as cited in Willis, 2007, p. 100) as having foundations in the German intellectual tradition of hermeneutics and the verstehen tradition of sociology, the phenomenology of Alfred Shutz, and critiques of scientism and positivism in the social sciences [including] the writings of ordinary language philosophers critical of logical empiricism. Interpretivsits believe what constitutes reality is socially constructed and that therefore, understanding the context in which research occurs is critical to the interpretation of data gathered (Willis, p. 98). Unlike post-positivist research, interpretivist research does not seek to gain knowledge through explanation but rather through understanding (Willis, p. 98). As Willis (2007, p. 100) states, this fundamental distinction was first made by William Dilthey (1813-1911) who proposed that although explanation (erklaren) and the establishment of Universal laws may be an appropriate aim for the natural sciences; it is incompatible for research in the cultural (human) sciences. Instead, Dilthey believed the human sciences should focus upon gaining meaning through understanding (verstehen). An aim achieved by examination of the lived experience. Diltheys conceptualisation of interpretivism reflect his origins in hermeneutics; a tradition which Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, p. 203) describe as fundamental to qualitative research. Hermeneutics, given foundations by Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) (Munhall, 2007, p. 111), refers to a theory and method of interpretation; of discovering hidden meaning by understanding the context in which meaningful human action occurs (Baumgartner Hensley, 2006, p. 203). According to Willis (2007, p. 104) philosophical hermeneutics is grounded in interpretivist epistemology; rejecting foundationalism in favour of a subjective, contextual understanding. This grounding was heavily influenced by the work of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), through whose efforts the entire foundation of philosophy shifted from an epistemological to an ontological focus. Challenged by the work of Edmund Husserl, Heidegger developed a hermeneutical interpretation of phenomenology (Finlay Ballinger, 2006, pp. 186-187) aimed at understanding the experience of being-in-the-world or Dasein (Wheeler, 2013 (Spring Edition)). Enabling analysis and interpretation of experience or phenomena, through which themes and meaning emerge, is the hermeneutic circle. As explained by Willis (2007, p. 106), during this process the researcher constantly shifts between the parts and the whole; continually revising and further developing interpretations by moving from the research topic, to the research context, to the researchers own subjective understanding. Originally developed by Dilthey (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 242), the circle was reconceptualised by Heidegger to reflect and inform his ontological investigations, coming to represent the interplay between our self-understanding and our understanding of the world (Ramberg Gjesdal, 2009 (Summer Edition) para. 33). Appropriated by the existentialist Hans-Georg Gadamer in his search for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦an understanding of understanding (Polifroni Welch, 1999, p. 242) the circle remains in use today; representative of the origins of interpretivism. Post-Positivism and Interpretivism As the preceding sections have alluded, post-positivism is grounded in the ontology of critical realism. Post-positivists therefore maintain that although there exists an external reality independent of human consciousness, obtaining a truly objective view of this reality is not possible. Nonetheless, the post-positivist preserves objectivity as an ideal in the search for truth. Conversely, interpretivism is grounded in the ontology of relativism. Thus, interpretivists believe not only that access to an objective reality is impossible as all knowledge is contextually relative, but that there exists no universal truths (Smith, 2008, p. 275). These foundational beliefs are reflected within the data collection and analysis processes. Creswell (2003, as cited in Baumgartner Hendley, 2007, p. 201) identifies four types of qualitative data collection methods: documents, observation, audio-visual, and interviews. According to Rebar and Macnee (2011, p. 151) at the most foundational level, data collected in qualitative studies should function to enable the researcher to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦construct a description of the meaning of the variables under study. This is in comparison to quantitative data collection methods which à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦aim to measure the variables of interest clearly, specifically, and accurately(Rebar Macnee, p. 155). Reflecting the aim of statistical analysis of numerical data, quantitative data collection methods may include chemical laboratory tests, systematic observations, physiologic measurement or highly structured questionnaires (Rebar Macnee, p. 155). In relation to data analysis, Rebar and Macnee (2011, p. 69) assert that while organising and assessing data to find meaning remains the same for both the qualitative and quantitative approach, methods to achieve this aim differ considerably. For example, within the qualitative research approach the aim is to describe and explain; to gain insight into a specific experience or phenomena, understood as contextual and relative (Rebar Macnee, p. 69). While in contrast, results obtained from quantitative data analysis (which may also describe and explain) primarily aim to infer and predict; to be generalizable beyond the specific research setting (Rebar Macnee, pp. 66-67). As Baumgartner and Hensley (2006, pp. 323-341) state, central to attaining inference from quantitative data is the presence of objectivity, reliability, and validity during data collection. Conversely, avoiding error and establishing rigor within qualitative data collection and analysis requires the researcher to constantly review data to ensure its trustworthiness, confirmability, transferability, and credibility (Rebar Macnee, 2011, p. 151). Therefore, while the quantitative researcher employs formulae and statistical methods to organise data and extract meaning; the qualitative researcher derives meaning via methods of induction and interpretation. As explained by Julian (2008) the intellectual process (para. 1) of content analysis, within which the qualitative researcher categories and codes data identifying dominant themes which are subsequently explored and described, represents one of these methods. With the aim of comparing and contrasting the post-positivist and interpretivist research paradigms, this essay began by delineating the fundamental distinctions between the quantitative and qualitative research method. Following this, the history and philosophy of both post-positivism and interpretivism were outlined, with significant figures impacting upon each paradigm identified. Finally, methodological differences between the post-positivists and interpretivist research paradigms were compared and contrasted, with differences within data collection and analysis methods of each framework outlined. In summary, while post-positivism emerged from the work of Karl Popper, is associated with the quantitative research method, and adopts a critical realist philosophy; interpretivism emerged from the work of William Dilthey and Martin Heidegger, is associated with the qualitative research method, and adopts a relativist philosophy. Depending on research aims, post-positivism and interpre tivism offer two unique and characteristic frameworks which function to guide and inform the research process.

Strategies to Motivate Employees

Strategies to Motivate Employees INTRODUCTION Motivation of employees in the workplace is one of the fundamental responsibilities of a manager, in order to achieve high levels of productivity, to satisfy the ever changing customer needs, and to withstand the increasing global competition. Management motivates the organizational members to make the most of the scarce resources by distributing awards to outstanding employees and perhaps punishing those showing unacceptable performance. Steers (1987) stated that â€Å"A comprehensive theory of motivation at work must address itself to at least three important sets of variables which constitute the work situation, i.e. the characteristics of the individual, the characteristics of the job and the characteristics of the work environment†. (Blue†¦) Motivation is a tool, often used by the managers to catalyze the avidness of the employees to work without pressure. Various motivational theories have been used since decades to stimulate the workforce in achieving extraordinary results in all fields of work. To motivate the employees, the managers should understand that different people have different set of needs and understanding, and therefore, should be able to use the right mix of motivational theories depending on different individuals, different societies, and different organizational levels. Use of analogous motivation methods may lead to frustration, resentment and a perception of inequity for employees from a diverse culture. (cited from CULTURAL VALUES IN RELATION TO EQUITY SENSTIVITY WITHIN AND ACROSS CULTURES, KENNETH G. WHEELER) Taking this into consideration the managers should apply their knowledge of the various motivational theories to improve the workplace performance. It would depend on different societies, different individuals, and different organizational or job levels. There is not probably a universal motivator for all mankind, nor is there a single motivating force for any one individual. It is a problem of what mixture of needs for what kind of people in what kind of society. In Hong Kong, for example, there is no doubt that money is a predominant motivator with regard to both the lower level need satisfaction and the fulfilment of status and achievement goals. Employee motivation or motivation of organizational members is one of the critical functions of a manager, because there is a persistently increasing pressure for increased productivity in order to meet competition, to best utilize the scarce resources, and to provide goods and services to more and more people at less and less cost Organizations motivate their workforce to perform effectively by offering them rewards for satisfactory performance and perhaps punishing them for unsatisfactory performance. Motivation is the catalyst that spurns employees eagerness to work without pressure. To motivate is to provide employees with a motive to do some tasks. It is to cause or provoke somebody to act either positively or negatively. Motivation has been used by effective managers to prompt ordinary people to achieve uncommon results in all fields of endeavours People work because they have goals to achieve which surpass financial gains from their employment. Maslow (1943) said that people work to survive and live through financial compensation, to make new friends, to have job security, for a sense of achievement and to feel important in the society, to have a sense of identity, and most especially to have job satisfaction. All employees that have job satisfaction are high performers in their respective workplaces. Theories of Motivation Motivational theories are broadly segregated based on two grounds. The one dealing with the scientific approach such as Equity and Expectancy theory are called process theories and those showcasing the inner drive of an employee that motivates them to work such as Maslows (1954) hierarchy of needs and Herzbergs (1959) two factor theory are called content theories. The below mentioned section will highlight more about these theories. MOTIVATION THEORIES Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1954) presented the hierarchy of needs and divided them into two groups; deficiency and incremental needs. The deficiency needs includes the biological, safety, belongingness and social needs whereas the incremental needs comprises of the esteem and self actualization needs (Citation: Huitt, W. (2004). Maslows hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html. Return to:). Maslow proposed that as an individual develops they work towards achieving these needs, arranged in a certain hierarchy and unless the deficiency needs are satisfied the growth needs will have less or no relevance (http://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch/642/Articles%20syllabus/steers%20et%20al%20future%20of%20wk%20mot%20Ac%20Mgt%20rev%202004.pdf). According to Maslows â€Å"Needs Hierarchy Theory†, â€Å"as the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the h ierarchy becomes the primary motivator and remains so even if never satisfied† (McShane and Travaglione, 2007, p. 140). An urge to satisfy these needs motivates an employee to bring out the best performance in all endeavor of work. Although Maslow theory of Motivation received a lot of attention , however most of Maslows work has been criticized by people who applied the theory practically for work motivation( hall and nougaim 1968, cited in The Individual In The Economy: A Text Book Of Economic psychology by S.E.G. Lea, Roger M. Tarpy, Paul Webley). Also there is lack of evidence that the level of hierarchy precedes each other and will increase the importance of the next one if the latter is satisfied (wabha and Bridwell , 1974 cited in The Individual In The Economy: A Text Book Of Economic psychology by S.E.G. Lea, Roger M. Tarpy, Paul Webley). Finally there is an increasing evidence that Maslows â€Å"Hierarchy† of â€Å" Needs† are quiet unique and they cannot be applied universally because an individuals need will vary with location, values and beliefs (Haslam, Powell, and Turner, 2000, p. 319 339, Locke, 2000, p. 408-429 cited in McShane and Travaglione, 2007, p. 141). Davis and Filly comme nt, â€Å"†¦the exact order of priority may vary somewhat between persons†¦.† (Davis and Filly, 1963, cited in Dye, Mills, and Weatherbee, 2005, p. 1377).an example is required EQUITY THEORY Adams (1963, 1965) developed a motivation model based on to the comparison of oneself with others in context to the output input ratio at work. Equity is achieved when the input and output ratio is the same for different individuals. The employees of a firm try to compare their own ratio with that of others (Adams, 1963, p. 422-436, cited in McShane and Travaglione, 2007, p. 154). Thus get either get motivated if they think that the results are rational or else they get de motivated if they think that there is a lack of fairness in the work outcome. The major challenge lies with the managers to allocate a right mix of input and output considering a diverse global workforce so as to maintain equity in the organization. For instance, Dutch researchers found that pay inequity leads to negative behavior and frustration (Van Dierendonck et al, 1994; Van Y Peren et al, 1992) whereas Australian studies show that the situation results in lower job satisfaction (Carr et al., 1996). EXPECTANCY THEORY Expectancy theory suggests that an individual acts through self interest and adopts a pathway of actions which he perceives will maximize the chances of desirable results for themselves (Isaac, Wilfred, and Pitt, 2001, p. 212). The theory is based on three components; valence, expectancy and instrumentality. Vroom (1964, p. 15) defined valence as an â€Å"affective orientations toward particular outcomes†. Expectancy refers to a momentary belief of an individual that a stated level of performance will follow a particular outcome. Finally, instrumentality is related to an individuals expectations that â€Å"if she or he behaves in a certain way, he or she will get certain things† (Nadler and Lawler, 1997, p. 218). Expectancy theory is thus grounded on the fact that the work performance is directed towards individual behaviors that people perceive, will lead them to the desired outcomes (McShane and Travaglione, 2007, p. 146). HERZBERGS â€Å"TWO FACTOR THEORY† Herzberg ‘s (1959) Motivation- Hygiene or two factor theory suggest that the intrinsic and the extrinsic aspects of a job are different from each other. The theory breaks job satisfaction into two factors: Motivation and Hygiene factors. Motivators relates to the intrinsic factors such as responsibility, recognition, achievement and the work profile. On the other hand hygiene factors are associated with the extrinsic factors such as remuneration, working environment, policies of the organization and position ((Manolopoulos, 2008, p. 66). Herzberg(1959) suggest that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two different independent variables. According to the theory job dissatisfaction is an outcome followed by lack of hygiene factors. However, even their presence dosent motivates or satisfies the work force. On the other hand motivation factors acted as elements to enrich an individuals job. Motivation factors had long term positive effects on the workforce performance whereas hygiene factors had a short term impact on the attitude and performance of the employees (Gawel Joseph E. (1997). Herzbergs theory of motivation and Maslows hierarchy of needs. Practical Assessment, Research Evaluation, 5(11). Retrieved August 18, 2009 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=5n=11 . This paper has been viewed 290,800 times since 11/13/1999..)eg is required. However, questions have been raised about the application of Herzbergs theory on diverse workforce. A few of the motivation factors may lead to dissatisfaction and a few of hygiene factor may result in satisfaction (Gardner, 1977, p. 197). It is totally based on individuals or groups requirement. Implementation of Motivational Theories It is an important aspect of a managers job profile to keep the employees motivated towards the organizational goals. A manager should understand the needs of both the organization and the employees and should try to align them so as to get favorable results. Despite having a lot of Motivation theories , managers still face a lot of problem in motivating their employees and one major factor behind this is the global workforce having altogether different values and beliefs

The Theme of Blindness in King Lear Essay examples -- English Literatu

The Theme of Blindness in King Lear In the tragedy King Lear, the term blindness has an entirely different meaning. It is not a physical flaw, but the inability of the characters to see a person for whom they truly are. They can only read what is presented to them on the surface. King Lear, Gloucester and Albany are three prime examples characters who suffered most by having this flaw. Lear was by far the blindest of the three. Because Lear was the King, one would expect him to have superb reasoning skills, but his lack of insight kept him from making wise choices. This is the flaw that led to his downfall. Lear's first big mistake was letting himself be fooled by Regan and Goneril, and giving them his throne. For they did not love him at all, he could not understand the depth of Cordelia's love for him. He banished her from the kingdom without one thought to what she had said. Lear's last words to the only daughter that truly loved him were; ".....for we/ have no such daughter, nor shall we ever see/ that face of hers again. Therefore be gone/ without our grace, our love, our benison." (Shakespeare 1, 1. 262-265) Lear's blindness also caused him to banish Kent, one of his most loyal followers. Kent tried to stand up to Lear in Cordelia's honor, but Lear would not listen to what Kent was trying to tell him. To Kent's opposition; "This hideous rashness, answer my life, my judgement,/ Thy youngest daughter does not love thee least;" ( 1,1. 150-151) Lear responded with, "Kent on thy life, no more." ( 1, 1, 154) "Out of my sight!" ( 1, 1. 157) This is a good example of Lear's lack of insight. He was being too stubborn to see that Kent was only trying to do what was best for Lear. After Kent had been banished, he ... ...for Goneril blinded him from the evilness that she possessed. He was blind from the fact that Goneril was having an affair with Edmund, and planning to have her husband killed. Fortunately Edgar, devised a plan to cure Albany's blindness. A letter outlining Goneril's plan, was all that Albany needed to see. After reading the letter Albany came to his senses and confronted Goneril; " O Goneril,/ You are not worth the dust which the rude wind/ Blows in your face!" ( 4, 2. 29-31) Unlike Lear and Gloucester, Albany did not suffer from his bout of blindness, he lived to become the leader of which was once Lear's kingdom. In King Lear, blindness is a theme portrayed by the main characters of these plots. Throughout the play Shakespeare is saying that the world cannot be seen with eyes only. It is a combination of mind, emotion and heart. True sight comes from within.

The Republican Party Essay examples -- Papers Government Politics Essa

The Republican Party The Republican party is one of the two major POLITICAL PARTIES in the United States, the other being the DEMOCRATIC PARTY party. It is popularly known as the GOP, from its earlier nickname Grand Old Party. From the time it ran its first PRESIDENTIAL candidate, John C. Fremont, in 1856, until the inauguration of Republican George BUSH in 1989, Republican presidents occupied the WHITE HOUSE for 80 years. Traditionally, Republican strength came primarily from New England and the Midwest. After World War II, however, it greatly increased in the Sunbelt states and the West. Generally speaking, after World War I the Republican party became the more conservative of the two major parties, with its support coming from the upper middle class and from the corporate, financial, and farming interests. It has taken political stances generally in favor of laissez- faire, free enterprise, and fiscal responsibility (at least until 1981) and against the welfare state. The Founding of the Party Scholars agree that the origins of the party grew out of the sectional conflicts regarding the expansion of slavery into the new Western territories. The stimulus for political realignment was provided by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. That law repealed earlier compromises that had excluded slavery from the territories. The passage of this act served as the unifying agent for abolitionists and split the Democrats and the WHIG party. "Anti-Nebraska" protest meetings spread rapidly through the country. Two such meetings were held in Ripon, Wis., on Feb. 28 and Mar. 20, 1854, and were attended by a group of abolitionist FREE SOILERS, Democrats, and Whigs. They decided to call themselves Republicans--because they p... ...en George Bush won the presidency by a large margin. President Bush's approval rating reached an impressive 89 percent in 1991 after the international coalition he forged against Iraq achieved victory in the Persian Gulf War. However, a recession that began in 1990, combined with the electorate's growing concern with domestic issues in the aftermath of the Cold War and public impatience with "gridlock" in the government, counted against him in his reelection bid. Led by Bill CLINTON, the Democrats in 1992 captured the presidency (with 370 ELECTORAL votes to Bush's 168) and solid majorities in both houses of Congress. In 1994, having blocked Clinton's legislative agenda and mounted an aggressive counterattack in that year's mid-term election campaign, Republicans seized control of both houses of Congress. Bibliography: American Encyclopedia on line

The Social Model of Mental Illness Essay -- Psychiatry Psychology Pape

The Social Model of Mental Illness The social model of mental illness emphasizes the social environment and the roles people play. Thomas Scheff maintains that people diagnosed as mentally ill are victims of the status quo, guilty of often unnamed violations of social norms; thus the label "mental illness" can be used as an instrument of social control. I agree with Scheff's analysis, and I strongly concur with the view Thomas Szasz takes on the notion of mental illness. Szasz argues that much of what we call "mental illness" is a myth; it is not an illness, but simply "problems in living", troubles caused by conflicting personal needs, opinions, social aspirations, values, and so forth (Szasz 13). It thus follows that the widely accepted medical model of mental illness is inherently flawed; that mental illness should, then, certainly not be treated much like physical illness. Szasz is extremely critical of contemporary psychiatry as a discipline, arguing that psychiatrists are not benign professionals helping t o liberate individuals and improve their lives by diagnosing and treating mental illnesses, but instead act as agents of social control; silencing, stigmatizing and dehumanizing people who disturb the prevailing social order. Every society rewards conformity; those with more serious problems in living often do a very poor job of conforming, and are punished accordingly. In Ideology and Insanity: Essays on the Psychiatric Dehumanization of Man, Thomas Szasz writes that "on the one hand, by seeking relief from the burden of his moral responsibilities, man mystifies and technicizes his problems in living...on the other hand, the demand for "help" thus generated is now met by a behavioral tec... ...s in trying to understand and properly treat what is known as mental illness, we should give some credibility and responsibility back to those who are labeled "mentally ill," looking to them for ideas, for suggestions, for guidance. Those who have more severe problems in living (as well as their families and/or friends) may know more about their predicament than those who do not, and may be able to propose, indirectly or directly, remedies that may alleviate their unfortunate plight. Bibliography: Awake! Magazine. "Hope for the Mentally Ill." September 8, 1986 ed, pgs.3-10. Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York, Inc, 1986. Kaysen, Susanna. Girl, Interrupted. Turtle Bay Books. New York, NY, 1993. Szasz, Thomas. Ideology and Insanity: Essays on the Psychiatric Dehumanization of Man. Syracuse University Press. Syracuse, NY, 1991

Greek Art(Sculpture, Vessels)

Greek Art No matter how accomplished they might be, the works of art we have discussed so far seem alien to us. The ancient cultures that produced them were so different from our own that we find few references in those works to our time. Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting, however, are immediately recognizable as the ancestors of Western civilization, despite their debts to earlier art. A Greek temple reminds us of countless government buildings, banks, and college campuses; a Greek statue recalls countless statues of our own day; and a Greek coin is a little different from those we use today.This is neither coincidental nor inevitable. Western civilization has carefully constructed itself in the image of the Greek or the Roman worlds. For an art historian trying to understand the visual culture of those worlds, this presents a special challenge: It is tempting to believe that something familiar on the surface holds the same significance for us as it did for the Greeks or t he Romans, but scholars have discovered time and time again that this is a dangerous fallacy.Another complication in studying Greek art arises because there are three separate, and sometimes conflicting, sources of information on the subject. First, there are the works themselves—reliable, but only a small fraction of what once existed. Second, there are Roman copies of Greek originals, especially sculptures. These works tell us something about important pieces that would otherwise be lost to us, but copies pose their own problems. Without the original, we cannot determine how faithful the copy is, and sometimes multiple copies present several versions of a single original.To make things even more complicated, a Roman copyist’s notion of a copy was quite different from ours. A Roman copy was not necessarily intended as a strict imitation, but allowed for interpreting or adapting the work according to the taste or skill of the copyist or the wishes of the patron. Moreov er, the quality of some Greek sculpture owed much to surface finish, which, in a copy, is entirely up to the copyist. If the original was bronze and the copy marble, the finish would differ dramatically.In some rare cases, apparent copies are of such high quality that we cannot be sure that they really are copies. The third source of information about Greek works is literature. The Greeks were the first Western people to write at length about their own artists. Roman writers incorporated Greek accounts into their own: many of these have survived, although often in fragmentary condition. These written sources offer a glimpse of what the Greeks themselves considered their most important achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting.This written testimony has helped us to identify celebrated artists and monuments, though much of it deals with works that have not survived. In other cases, surviving Greek works that strike us as among the greatest masterpieces of their time are n ot mentioned at all in literature. Reconciling the literature with the copies and the original works, and weaving these strands into a coherent picture of the development of Greek art, has been the difficult task of archeologists and ancient art historians for several centuries.The Greek Gods and Goddesses All early civilizations and preliterate cultures had creation myths to explain the origin of the universe and humanity’s place in it. Over time, these myths evolved into complex cycles that represent a comprehensive attempt to understand the world. The Greek gods and goddesses, though immortal, behaved in very human ways. They quarreled, and had children with each other‘s spouses and often with mortals as well. They were sometimes threatened and even overthrown by their own children.The principal Greek gods and goddesses, with their Roman counterparts in parentheses, are given below. ZEUS (Jupiter): son of Kronos and Rhea; god of sky and weather, and king of the Olymp ian deities. After killing Kronos, Zeus married his sister HERA (Juno) and divided the universe by lot with his brothers: POSEIDON (Neptune) as allotted the sea and HADES (Pluto) was allotted the Underworld, which he ruled with his queen PERSEPHONE (Proserpina). Zeus and Hera had several children: ARES (Mars), the god of war HEBE, the goddess of youthHEPHAISTOS (Vulcan), the lame god of metalwork and the forge Zeus lost had numerous children through his love affairs with other goddesses and with mortal women, including: ATHENA (Minerva), goddess of crafts, including war, and thus of intelligence and wisdom. A protector of heroes, she became the patron goddess of Athens, an honor she won in a contest with Poseidon. Her gift to the city was an olive tree, which she caused to sprout on the Akropolis. APHRODITE (Venus), the goddess of love, beauty, and female fertility. She married Hephaistos, but had many affairs.Her children were HARMONIA, EROS, and ANTEROS (with Ares); HERMAPHRODITOS (with Hermes); PRIAPOS (with Dionysos); and AENEAS (with the Trojan prince Anchises). APOLLO ( Apollo), with his twin sister ARTEMIS, god of the stringed lyre and bow, who therefore both presided over the civilized pursuits of music and poetry, and shot down transgressors; a paragon of male beauty, he was also the god of prophecy and medicine. ARTEMIS (Diana), with her twin brother, APOLLO, virgin goddesses of the hunt and the protector of young girls.She was also sometimes considered a moon goddess with SELENE. DIONYSOS (Bacchus), the god of altered states particularly that induced the wine. Opposite in temperament to Apollo, Dionysos was raised on Mount Nysa, where he invented winemaking; he married the princess Ariadne after the hero Theseus abandoned her on Naxos. His followers, the goatish satyrs and their female companions, the nymphs and humans who were known as maenads (bacchantes), were given to orgiastic excess. Yet, there was another, more temperate side to Dionysos†™ character.As the god of fertility, he was also a god of vegetation, as well as of peace, hospitality, and the theater. HERMES (Mercury), the messenger of the gods, conductor of souls to Hades, and the god of travelers and commerce. The great flowering of ancient Greek art was just one manifestation of a wide-ranging exploration of humanistic and religious issues. Artists, writers, and philosophers struggled with common question, still preserved in a huge body of works. Their inquiries cut to the very core of human existence, and have formed the backbone of much of Western philosophy.For the most part, they accepted a pantheon of gods, whom they worshiped in human form. (See Informing Art, above) Yet they debated the nature of those gods, and the relationship between divinities and humankind. Did fate control human actions, or was there free will? And if so, what was the nature of virtue? Greek thinkers conceived of many aspects of life in dualistic terms. Order (cosmos, in Greek ) was eternally opposed to disorder (chaos), and both poles permeated existence. Civilization, which was, by definition, Greek, stood in pposition to an uncivilized world beyond Greek borders; all non-Greeks were â€Å"barbarians†, named for the nonsensical sound of their languages to Greek ears (â€Å"bar-bar-bar-bar†). Reason, too, had its opposite: the irrational, mirrored in light and darkness, in man and woman. In their literature and in their art, the ancient Greeks addressed the tension between these polar opposites. THE EMERGENCE OF GREEK ART: THE GEOMETRIC STYLE The first Greek-speaking groups came to Greece about 2000 BCE. These newcomers brought with them a new culture that soon evolved to encompass most of mainland Greece, as well as the Aegean Islands and Crete.By the first millennium BCE the Greeks had colonized the west coast of Asia Minor and Cyprus. In this period we distinguish three main subgroups: the Dorinians, centered in Peloponnese; the Ionians, inhabiting Attica, Euboea, the Cyclades, and the central coast of Asia Minor; and the Aeolians, who ended up in the northeast Aegean (see map 5. 1). Despite their cultural differences and their geographical dispersal, the Greeks had a strong sense of kinship, based on language and common beliefs.From the mid-eighth through the mid-sixth centuries BCE, there was a wave of colonization as the Greeks expanded across the Mediterranean and as far as the Black Sea. At this time, they founded important settlements in Sicily and southern Italy, collectively known as Magna Graecia, and in North Africa. After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, art became largely nonfigural for several centuries. In the eighth century BCE, the oldest Greek style that we know in the arts developed, known today as the Geometric.Images appeared at about the time the alphabet was introduced (under strong Near Eastern influence). It was contemporaneous, too, with the work of the poet Homer (or a group of poet s), who wrote the lasting epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, tales of the Trojan War and the return of one of its heroes, Odysseus, home to Ithaka. We also have works in painted pottery and small-scale sculpture in clay and bronze. The two forms are closely related: Pottery was often adorned with the kinds of figures found in sculpture. Geometric Style PotteryAs quickly as pottery became an art form, Greek potters began to develop an extensive, but fairly standardized, repertoire of vessel shape (fig. 5. 1). Each type was well adapted to its function, which was reflected in its form. As a result, each shape presented unique challenges to the painter, and some became specialists at decorating certain types of vases. Larger pots often attracted the most ambitious craftsmen because they provided a more generous field on which to work. Making and decorating vases were complex processes, usually performed by different artisans.At first painters decorated their wares with abstract desi gns, such as triangles, â€Å"checkerboard†, and concentric circles. Toward 800 BCE human and animal figures began to appear within the geometric framework, and in the most elaborate examples these figures interacted in narrative scenes. The vase shown here, from a cemetery near the later Dipylon gate in the northwestern corner of Athens, dates to around 750 BCE (fig. 5. 2). Known as the Dipylon Vase, it was one of a group of unusually large vessels used as grave monuments. Holen in its base allowed liquid offerings (libations) to filter down to the dead below.In earlier centuries, Athenians had placed the ashes of their cremated dead inside vases, choosing the vase's shape according to the sex of the deceased. A woman's remains were buried in a belly-handled amphora, a type of vase more commonly used for storing wine or oil; a man's ashes were placed in a neck-amphora. A krater, a large bowl-like vessel in which Greeks normally mixed wine with water, had also been used as a burial marker since the early first millennium(see fig. 5. 1). The shape of the example illustrated here shows that the deceased was a woman; its sheer monumentality indicates that she was a woman of considerable means.The amphora is a masterpiece of the potter's craft. At over 5 feet tall, it was too large to be thrown in one piece. Instead, the potter built it up in sections, joined with a clay slip. A careful proportional scheme governed the vessels' form: Its width measures half of its height and the neck measures half the height of the body. The artist placed the handles so as to emphasize the widest point of the body. Most of the vase's decoration is given over to geometric patterns dominated by a meander pattern, also known as a maze or Greek key pattern (fig 5. ), a band of rectangular scrolls, punctuated with bands of lustrous black paint at the neck, the shoulder, and the base. The geometric design reflects the proportional system of the vase's shape. Single meander patter ns run in bands toward the top and bottom of the neck; the triple meander encircling the neck at the center emphasizes its length. The double and single meanders on the amphora's body appear stocky by contrast, complementing the body's rounder form. Above the triple meander on the neck, deer graze, one after the other, in an identical pattern circling the vase.This animal frieze prefigures the widespread use of the motif in the seventh century BCE. At the base of the neck, they recline, with their heads turned back over their bodies, like an animate version of the meander pattern itself, which moves ever forward while turning back upon itself. In the center of the amphora, framed between its handles, is a narrative scene. The deceased lies on a bier, beneath a checkered shroud. Flanking her are standing figures with their arms raised above their heads in a gesture of lamentation; an additional four figures kneel on sit beneath the bier.Rather than striving for naturalism, the painte r used solid black geometric forms to construct human bodies. A triangle represents the torso, and the raised arms extend the triangle beyond the shoulders. The scene itself represents the prothesis, part of the Athenian funerary ritual when the dead person lay in state and public mourning took place. A lavish funeral was an occasion to display wealth and status, and crowds of mourners were so desirable that families would hire professional mourners for the event.Thus the depiction of a funeral on the burial marker is not simply journalistic reportage but a visual record of the deceased person's high standing in society. Archeologists have found Geometric pottery in Italy and the Near East as well as in Greece. This wide distribution is a sign of the important role not only the Greeks but also the Phoenicians, North Syrians, and other Near Eastern peoples as agents of diffusion all around the Mediterranean. What is more, from the second half of the eighth century onwards, inscriptio ns on hese vases show that the Greeks had already adapted the Phoenician alphabet to their own use. Geometric Style Sculpture A small, bronze sculptural group representing a man and a centaur dates to about the same time as the funerary amphora, and there are distinct similarities in the way living forms are depicted in both works of art(fig. 5. 4). Thin arms and flat, triangular chests contrast with more rounded buttocks and legs. The heads are spherical forms, with beards and noses added. The artist cast the group in one piece, uniting them with a common base and their entwined pose.The group was probably found in the sanctuary at Olympia. Judging by its figurative quality, and by the costliness of the material and technique, it was probably a sumptuous votive offering. The figures obviously interact, revealing the artist's interest in narrative, a theme that persists throughout the history of Greek art. Whether the artist was referring to a story known to his audience is hard to say. The figures' helmets tell us that their encounter is martial, and the larger scale of the man may suggest that he will be the victor in the struggle.Many scholars believe he represents Herakles, son of Zeus and a Greek hero, who fought centaurs many times in the course of his mythical travails. THE ORIENTALIZING STYLE: HORIZONS EXPAND Between about 725 and 650 BCE, a new style of pottery and sculpture emerged in Greece that reflects strong influences initially from the Near East and later from Egypt. Scholars know this as the Orientalizing period, when Greek art and culture rapidly absorbed a host of Eastern motifs and ideas, including hybrid creatures such as griffins and sphinxes.This absorption of Eastern ideas led to a vital period of experimentation, as painters and sculptors mastered new forms. Map 5. 1 The Ancient Greek World 5. 1 Some common Greek vessel forms 5. 2 Late Geometric belly-handled amphora by the Dipylon Master, from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens. ca 750 BCE. Height 5'1† (1. 55 m) National Archaeological Museum, Athens 5. 3 Common Greek ornamental motifs 5. 4 Man and Centaur, perharps from Olympia. ca 750 BCE. Bronze. Height 4 3/8 † (11. 1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. 17. 190. 072 Miniature Vessels The Orientalizing style replaced the Geometric in many Greek city-states, including Athens. One of the foremost centers of its production, though, was Corinth, at the northeastern gateway to the Peloponnese. This city became a leader in colonizing ventures in the west and came to dominate the trade in exports. Corinthian workshops had a long history of pottery production. Vase painters learned to make a refined black gloss slip, which they used to create silhouette or outline images. They could also incise the slip to add detail and vivacity to their work.They particularly specialized in crafting miniature vessels like the vase shown here, which is at Proto-Corinthian aryballos o r perfume jar, dating to about 680 BCE (fig. 5. 5). Archeologists have discovered vessels like this one throughout the Greek world, left in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods, or buried as grave goods. Despite its small size, intricate decoration covers the vase's surface. Around the shoulder stalks a frieze of animals, reminiscent of Near Eastern animal motifs and of the early example seen on the Dipylon Vase (see figs. 2. 25 and 5. 2).Bands are real and imaginary animals are a hallmark of Corinthian and other Orientalizing wares, covering later vases from top to bottom. A guilloche pattern ornaments the handle, and meander patterns cover the edge of the mouth and the handle (see fig. 5. 3). The principal figural frieze offers another early example of pictorial narrative, but the daily life scenes of Geometric pottery have yielded to the fantastic world of myth. On one side, a stocky nude male wielding a sword runs toward a vase on a stand. On the side shown here, bearded male struggles to wrest a scepter or staff from the grasp of a centaur.According to one theory, the frieze represents a moment in Herakles' conflict with a band of centaurs on Mount Pholoe. In Greek mythology, centaurs were notoriously susceptible to alcohol, and the mixing bowl for wine represented on the other side may indicate the reason for their rowdiness. Others interpret the â€Å"Herakles† figure as Zeus, brandishing his thunderbolt or lightning. No matter how one reads this scene, there is no doubt that it was meant to evoke a mythological reality. BRONZE TRIPODS During the Geometric period, Greeks would sometimes set up bronze tripod cauldrons in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods (fig. . 6). The gesture was an act of piety, but it was also a way of displaying wealth, and some of the tripod cauldrons reached monumental proportions. From the early seventh century BCE, a new type of monumental vessel was introduced— the Orientalizing cauldron. Around the edge of the bowl, bronze-workers might catch protomes, images of sirens (winged female creatures), and griffins— both were fantasy creatures that were known in the Near East. The cast protome shown here, from the island of Rhodes, is a magnificently ominous creature, standing watch over the dedication (fig. 5. 7).The boldly upright ears and the vertical knob on top of the head contrast starkly with the strong curves of the neck, head, eyes, and mouth, while its menacing tongue is silhouetted in countercurve against the beak. The straight lines appear to animate the curves, so that the dangerous hybrid seems about to spring. ARCHAIC ART: ART OF THE CITY-STATE During the course of the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, the Greeks appear to have refined their notion of a polis, or city-state. Once merely a citadel, the place of refuge in times of trouble, the city came to represent a community and an identity.City-states, as they are known, were governed in several different ways, includ ing monarchy (from monarches, â€Å"sole ruler†), aristocracy (from aristoi and kratia, â€Å"rule of the best†), tyranny (from tyrannos, â€Å"despot†), oligarchy (from oligoi, â€Å"the few,† a small ruling elite), and, in Athens, democracy (from demos, â€Å"the people†). The road to democracy moved slowly, starting with Solon's reforms at the end of the sixth century in Athens. Even by the time of Perikles' radical democratic reforms of 462 BCE, women played no direct role in civic life, and slavery was the accepted practice in Athens, as it was everywhere in the Greek world.With the changing ideal of the city-state came a change in its physical appearance. The Rise of Monumental Temple Architecture At some point in the seventh century BCE, Greek architects began to design temples using stone rather than wood. The earliest were probably built at Corinth, in a style known as Doric, named for the region where it originated. From there the idea sp read across the isthmus that connects the Peloponnesos to the mainland and up the coast to Delphi and the island of Corfu, then rapidly throughout the Hellenic world.The Ionic style soon developed on the Aegean Islands and the coast of Asia Minor. The Corinthian style did not develop until the fourth century BCE (see page 142). Greeks recognized the importance of this architectural revolution at the time: Architects began to write treatises on architecture— the first we know of— and the personal fame they achieved through their work has lasted to this day. Writing in Roman times, the architect Vitruvius described the Doric and Ionic styles, and his discussions of them have been central to our understanding of Greek architecture.However, our readings of his text have been mediated through early modern commentators and illustrators, who wrote of Doric and Ionic â€Å"orders† rather than â€Å"types†, which is a better translation of Vitruvius' â€Å"genera †. The distinction is important: â€Å"Order† suggest an immutable quality, a rigid building code, when in fact we find a subtle but rich variation in surviving Greek architecture. The essential, functioning components of Doric and Ionic temples are very similar, though they may vary according to the size of the building or regional preferences (fig. 5. ). The nucleus of the building—in fact, its reason for existing— is its main chamber, its cella or naos. This chamber housed an image of the god to whom the temple was dedicated. Often, interior columns lined the cella walls and helped to support the roof, as well as visually framing the cult statue. Approaching the cella is a porch or pronaos, and in some cases a second porch was added behind the cella, making the design more symmetrical and providing space for religious paraphernalia. In large temples, a colonnade or peristyle surrounds the central unit of ella and porches, and the building is known as a peripteral temple. The peristyle commonly consists of six to eight columns at front and back, and usually 12 to 17 along the sides, counting the corner columns twice; the very largest temples of Ionian Greece had a double colonnade. The peristyle added more than grandeur: It offered worshipers shelter from the elements. Being neither entirely exterior nor entirely interior space, it also functioned as a transitional zone, between the profane world outside and the sanctity of the cella.Some temples were set in sacred groves, where the columns, with their strong vertical form, integrated the temple with its environment. Echoed again inside the cella, the columns also integrated the exterior and interior of the building. Most Greek temples are oriented so that the entrance faces east, toward the rising sun. East of the temple is usually the altar, the truly indispensable installation for the performance of ritual. It was on the altar that Greeks performed sacrifices, standing before th e cult statue and the worshipping community of the Greek polis.Differences between the Doric and Ionic styles are apparent in a head-on view, or elevation. Many of the terms Greeks used to describe the parts of their buildings, shown in figure 5. 9, are still in common usage today. The building proper rests on an elevated platform, normally approached by three steps, known as the stereobate and stylobate. A Doric column consists of the shaft, usually marked by shallow vertical grooves, known as flutes, and the capital. The capital is made up of the flaring, cushionlike echinus and a square tablet called the abacus.The entablature, which includes all the horizontal elements that rest on the columns, is subdivided into the architrave(a row of stone blocks directly supported by the columns); the frieze, made up of alternating triple-grooved triglyphs and smooth or sculpted metopes; and a projecting horizontal cornice, or geison, which may include a gutter (sima). The architrave in turn supports the triangular pediment and the roof elements (the raking geison and raking sima). Ionic temples tend to rest on an additional leveling course, or euthynteria, as well as three steps.An Ionic column differs from a Doric column in having an ornate base of its own, perhaps used at first to protect the bottom from rain. Its shaft is more slender, with less tapering, ART IN TIME ca. 8th century BCE—Homer writes The Iliad and The Odyssey 776 BCE—First Olympic Games ca. 753 BCE—Rome founded ca. 750 BCE—Dipylon Vase 5. 5 The Ajax Painter. Aryballos (perfume jar). Middle Protocorinthian IA, 690-675 BCE. Ceramic. Height 2 7/8† (7. 3 cm). diameter 1 3/4† (4. 4 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Catharine Page Perkins Fund. Photograph  © 2006, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 95. 12 5. 6 Geometric tripod cauldron from Olympia. th century. Height 2'1 1/2† (65 cm). Olympia Museum 5. 7 Griffin-head protome from a bronze tripod-cauldron, from Ka meiros, Rhodes. ca. 650 BCE. Cast bronze. The British Museum, London 5. 8 Ground plan of a typical Greek peripteral temple (after Grinnell) and the capital has a double scroll or volute below the abacus, which projects strongly beyond the width of the shaft. The Ionic column lacks the muscular quality of its mainland cousin. Instead, it evokes a growing plant, something like a formalized palm tree, and this it shares with its Egyptian predecessors, though it may not have come directly from Egypt.Above the architrave, the frieze is continuous, rather than broken up visually into triglyphs and metopes. Whether Doric or Ionic, the temple structure was built of stone blocks fitted together without mortar, requiring that they be precisely shaped to achieve smooth joints. Where necessary, metal dowels or clamps fastened the blocks together. With rare exceptions, columns were made up of sections, called drums. The shaft was fluted after the entire column was assembled and in position. The roof was made of terra-cotta tiles over wooden rafters, and wooden beams were used for the ceiling.Fire was a constant threat. Just how either style came to emerge in Greece, and why they came together into succint systems so quickly, are still puzzling questions. Remains of the oldest surviving temples show that the main features of the Doric style were already well established soon after 600 BCE. Early Greek builders in stone seem to have drawn upon three sources of inspiration: Mycenaean and Egyptian stone architecture, and pre-Archaic Greek architecture in wood and mud brick. It is possible that the temple's central unit, the cella and porch, derived from the plan of the Mycenaean megaron(see fig. . 19), either through continuous tradition or by way of revival. If true, this relationship may reflect the revered place of Mycenaean culture in later Greek mythology. The shaft of the Doric column tapers upward, not downward like the Minoan-Mycenaean column. This recalls fluted half- columns in the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara (see fig. 3. 6), of over 2,000 years earlier. Moreover, the very notion that temple should be built of stone and have large numbers of columns was an Egyptian one, even if Egyptian temples were designed for greater internal traffic.Scholars assume that the Greeks learned many of their stone-cutting and masonry techniques from the Egyptians, as well as some knowledge of architectural ornamentation and geometry. In a sense, a Greek temple with its peristyle of columns might be viewed as the columned court of an Egyptian sanctuary turned inside out. Some scholars see the development of Doric architecture as a petrification (or turning to stone) of existing wooden forms, so that stone form follows wooden function. According to this view, at one triglyphs masked the ends of wooden beams, and the droplike shapes below, called guttae (see fig. . 9), are the descendants of wooden pegs that held them in place. Metopes evolved out of board s that filled gaps between the triglyphs to guard against weather. Mutules(flat projecting blocks), for their part, reflect the rafter ends in wooden roofs. Some derivations are more convincing than others, however. The vertical subdivisions of triglyphs hardly seem to reflect the forms of three half-round logs, as scholars suggest, and column flutings need not be developed from tool marks on a tree trunk, since Egyptian builders also fluted their columns and yet rarely used timber for supporting members.The question of how far stylistic features can be explained in terms of function faces the architectural historian again and again. DORIC TEMPLES AT PAESTUM The early evolution of Doric temples is evident in two unusually well-preserved examples located in the southern Italian polis of Paestum, where a Greek colony flourished during the Archaic period. Both temples are dedicated to the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus; the Temple of Hera II, however, was built almost a century after the T emple of Hera I, the so-called Basilica (fig. 5. 10). The differences in their proportions are striking. The Temple of Hera I( on the left, fig. 5. 0) appears low and sprawling—and not just because so much of the entablature is missing—whereas the Temple of Hera II looks tall and compact. This is partly because the temple of Hera I is enneastyle (with nine columns across the front and rear), while the later temple is only hexastyle (six columns). Yet it is also the result of changes to the outline of the columns. On neither temple are the column shafts straight from bottom to top. About a third of the way up, they bulge outward slightly, receding again at about two thirds of their height. This swelling effect, known as entasis, is much stronger on the earlier Temple of Hera I.It gives the impression that the columns bulge with the strain of supporting the superstructure and that the slender tops, although aided by the widely flaring, cushionlike capitals, can barely wi thstand the crushing weight. The device adds an extraordinary vitality to the building— a sense of compressed energy waiting to be released. The Temple of Hera II is among the best preserved of all Doric temples (fig. 5. 11), and shows how the ceiling was supported in a large Doric temple. Inside the cella, the two rows of columns each support a smaller set of columns in a way that makes the tapering seem continuous despite the architrave in between.Such a two-story interior is first found at the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina around the beginning of the fifth century BCE. That temple is shown here in a reconstruction drawing (fig. 5. 12), which illustrates the structural system in detail. EARLY IONIC TEMPLES The Ionic style first appeared about a half-century after the Doric. With its vegetal decoration, it seems to have been strongly inspired by Near Eastern forms. The closest known parallel to the Ionic capital is the Aeolic capital, found in the region of Old Smyrna, in easte rn Greece, and in the northeast Aegean, itself apparently derived from North Syrian and Phoenician designs.The earliest Ionic temples were constructed in Ionian Greece, where leading cities erected vast, ornate temples in open rivalry with one another. Little survives of these early buildings. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesos gained tremendous fame in antiquity, and numbered among the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Ephesians hired Theodoros to work on its foundations in about 560 BCE, shortly after he and another architect, Rhoikos, had designed a vast temple to Hera on the island of Samos. The architects, Chersiphron of Knossos and Metagenes, his son, wrote a treatise on their building.Like the temple on Samos, the temple at Ephesos was dipteral, with two rows of columns surrounding it (fig. 5. 13). Along with the vegetal capitals, this feature emphasized the forestlike quality of the building. The Temple of Artemis was larger than Hera's temple, and it was the first monum ental building to be constructed mostly of marble. These Ionic colossi had clear symbolic value: They represented their respective city's bid for regional leadership. Stone Sculpture According to literary sources, Greeks carved very simple wooden sculptures of their gods in the eighth century BCE, but since wood deteriorates, none of them survive.Yet, in about 650 BCE, sculptors, like architects, made the transition to working in stone, and so began one of the great traditions of Greek art. The new motifs that distinguished the Orientalizing style from the Geometric had reached Greece mainly through the importation of ivory carvings and metalwork from the Near East, reflecting Egyptian influences as well. But these transportable objects do not help to explain the rise of monumental stone architecture and sculpture, which must have been based on careful, on-the-spot study of Egyptian works and the techniques used to produce them.The opportunity for just such a close study was availab le to Greek merchants living in trading camps in the western Nile delta, by permission of the Egyptian king Psammetichus I (r. 664-610 BCE). KORE AND KOUROS Early Greek statues clearly show affinities with the techniques and proportional systems used by Egyptian sculptors. Two are illustrated here, one a small female figure of about 630 BCE, probably from Crete (fig. 5. 14), the other a life-size nude male youth of about 600 BCE (fig. 5. 15), known as the New York Kouros because it is displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.Like their Egyptian forerunners (see figs. 3. 11 and 3. 12), the statues are rigidly frontal, and conceived as four distinct sides, reflecting the form of the block from which they were carved, The female statue stands with feet placed firmly together, her left arm by her side, and her right arm held up to her breast. Like Menkaure, the Greek male youth is slim and broad-shouldered; he stands with his left leg forward, and his arms by his sides, terminating i n clenched fists. His shoulders, hips, and knees are all level.Both figures have stylized, wiglike hair like their Egyptian counterparts, but there are significant differences. First, the Greek sculptures are truly free-standing, separated from the back slab that supports Egyptian stone figures. In fact, they are the earliest large stone images of the human figure in the history of art that can stand on their own. More than that, Greek sculptures incorporated ART IN TIME ca. 680 BCE—Corinthian aryballos mid-7th century BCE—Black-figured vase-painting technique develops ca. 650 BCE—Greeks establish trading posts in Egypt ca. 20 BCE—Draco codifies Athenian laws 5. 9 Doric and Ionic styles in elevation 5. 10 The Temple of Hera I (â€Å"Basilica†), ca. 550 BCE, and the Temple of Hera II (â€Å"Temple of Poseidon†), ca. 500 BCE. Paestum 5. 11 Interior, Temple of Hera II, ca. 500 BCE 5. 12 Sectional view (restored) of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina 5. 13 Restored plan of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, Turkey. ca. 560 BCE empty space (between the legs, for instance, or between arms and torso), whereas Egyptian figures remained immersed in stone, with the empty spaces between forms partly filled.Early Greek sculptures are also more stylized than their Egyptian forebears. This is most evident in the large staring eyes, emphasized by bold arching eyebrows, and in the linear treatment of the anatomy: The male youth's pectoral muscles and rib cage appear almost to have been etched onto the surface of the stone, rather than modeled like Menkaure's. Like most early Greek female sculptures, this one is draped. She wears a close-fitting garment which reveals her breasts but conceals her hips and legs; in fact, the skirt has more in common with Egyptian block statues than with Queen Khamerernebty (see fig. 3. 2). While the Greek female statue and Menkaure are clothed, the male youth is nude. These conventions reflect the fact that pub lic nudity in ancient Greece was acceptable for males, but not for females. Dozen of Archaic sculptures of this kind survive throughout the Greek world. Some were discovered in sanctuaries and cemeteries, but most were found in reused contexts, which complicates any attempt to understand their function. Scholars describe them by the Greek terms for maiden (kore, plural korai) and youth (kouros, plural kouroi). These terms gloss over the difficulty of identifying them more precisely.Some are inscribed, with the names of artists (â€Å"†So-and-so' made me†) or with dedications to various deities, chiefly Apollo. These, then, were votive offerings. But in most cases we do not know whether they represent the donor, a deity, or a person deemed divinely favored, such as a victor in athletic games. Those placed on graves may have represented the person buried beneath; yet in rare cases a kouros stands over a female burial site. No clear effort was made to individualize the sta tues as portraits, so they can represent the dead only in a general sense.It might make most sense to think of the figures as ideals of physical perfection and vitality shared by mortals and immortals alike, given meaning by their physical context. What is clear is that only the wealthy could afford to erect them, since many were well over life size and carved from high quality marble. Indeed, the very stylistic cohesion of the sculptures may reveal their social function: By erecting a sculpture of this kind, a wealthy patron declared his or her status and claimed membership in ruling elite circles. DATING AND NATURALISM The Archaic period stretches from the mid-seventh century to about 480 BCE.Within this time frame, there are few secure dates for free-standing sculptures. Scholars have therefore established a dating system based upon the level of naturalism in a given sculpture. According to this system, the more stylized the figure, the earlier it must be. Comparing figures 5. 15 and 5. 16 illustrates how this model works. An inscription on the base of the latter identifies it as a funerary statue of Kroisos, who had died a hero's death in battle. Like all such figures, it was painted, and traces of color can still be seen in the hair and the pupils of the eyes.Instead of the sharp planes and linear treatment of the New York Kouros (fig. 5. 15), the sculptor of the kouros from Anavysos modeled its anatomy with swelling curves: looking at it, a viewer can imagine flesh and sinew and bones in the carved stone. A greater plasticity gives the impression that the body could actually function. The proportions of the facial features are more naturalistic as well. In general, the face has a less masklike quality than the New York Kouros, though the lips are still drawn up in an artificial smile, known as the Archaic smile, that is not reflected in the eyes.Based on these differences, scholars judge the Anavysos Kouros more â€Å"advanced† than the New York K ouros, and date it some 75 years later. Given the later trajectory of Greek sculpture, there is every reason to believe that this way of dating Archaic sculpture is more or less accurate (accounting for regional differences and the like). All the same, it is worth emphasizing that it is based on an assumption—that sculptors, or their patrons, were striving toward naturalism—rather than on factual data. The kore type appears to follow, a similar pattern of development to the kouros.With her blocklike form and strongly accented waist, for instance, the kore of figure 5. 17 seems a direct descendant of the kore in figure 5. 14. On account of her heavy woolen garment (or peplos), she is known as the Peplos Kore. The left hand, which once extended forward to offer a votive gift, must have given the statue a spatial quality quite different from that of the earlier kore figure. Equally new is the more organic treatment of the hair, which falls over the shoulders in soft, curl y strands, in contrast to the stiff wig in figure 5. 14.The face is fuller, rounder, and the smile gentler and more natural than any we have seen so far, moving from the mouth into the cheeks. Scholars therefore place this statue a full century later than the work shown in figure 5. 14. All the same, there is more variation in types of kore than in types of kouros. This is partly because a kore is a clothed figure and therefore presents the problem of how to relate body and drapery. It is also likely to reflect changing habits or local styles of dress. The kore of figure 5. 18, from about a decade later than the Peplos Kore, has none of the latter's severity.Both were found on the Akropolis of Athens, but she probably came from Chios, and island of Ionian Greece. Unlike the korai discussed so far, this kore wears the light Ionian chiton under the heavier diagonally-shaped kimation, which replaced the peplos in fashion. The layers of the garment still loop around the body in soft cur ves, but the play of richly differentiated folds, pleats, and textures has almost become an end in itself. Color played an important role in such works, and it is fortunate that so much of it survives in this example. Architectural Sculpture: The Building Comes AliveSoon after the Greeks began to build temples in stone, they also started to decorate them with architectural sculpture. Indeed, early Greek architects such as Theodoros of Samos were often sculptors as well, and sculpture played an important role in helping to articulate architecture and to bring it to life. Traces of pigment show that these sculptures were normally vividly painted—an image that is startlingly at odds with our conception of ancient sculpture as pristine white marble. The Egyptians had been covering walls and columns with reliefs since the Old Kingdom.Their carvings were so shallow (for example, see fig. 3. 29) that they did not break the continuity of the surface and had no weight or volume of the ir own. Thus they were related to their architectural setting in the same sense as wall paintings. This is also true of the reliefs on Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian buildings (for example, see figs. 2. 21 and 2. 22). the Near East, however, there was another kind of architectural sculpture, which seems to have begun with the Hittites: the guardian monsters protuding from the blocks that framed the gateways of fortresses or palaces (see fig. . 23). This tradition may have inspired, directly, or indirectly, the carving over the Lion Gate of Mycenae (see fig. 4. 22). THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS, CORFU That the Lion Gate relief is, conceptually, an ancestor of later Greek architectural sculpture is clear when one considers the facade of the early Archaic Temple of Artemis on the island of Corfu, built soon after 600 BCE (figs. 5. 19 and 5. 20). There, sculpture is confined to a triangle between the ceiling and the roof, known as the pediment. This area serves as a screen, protecting the w ooden rafters behind it from moisture.The pedimental sculpture is displayed against this screen. Technically, these carvings are in high relief, like the guardian lionesses at Mycenae. However, the bodies are so strongly undercut that they are nearly detached from the background, and appear to be almost independent of their architectural setting. Indeed, the head of the central figure actually overlaps the frame; she seems to emerge out of the pediment toward a viewer. This choice on the sculptor's part heightens the impact of the figure and strengthens her function.Although the temple was dedicated to Artemis, the figure represents the snake-haired Medusa, one of the Gorgon sisters of Greek mythology. Medusa's appearance was so monstrous, so the story went, that anyone who beheld her would turn to stone. With the aid of the gods, Perseus beheaded her, guiding his sword by looking at her reflection in his shield. 5. 14 Kore (Maiden). ca. 630 BCE. Limestone. Height 24 1/2† (62. 3 cm). Musee du Louvre, Paris 5. 15 Kouros (Youth), ca. 600-590 BCE. Marble. Height 6'1 1/2† (1. 88 m). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 5. 16 Kroisos (Kouros from Anavysos). ca. 540-525 BCE.Marble. Height 6'4† (1. 9 m). National Museum, Athens 5. 17 Kore in Dorian Peplos, known as Peplos Kore, ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 48† (122 cm). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 18 Kore, from Chios (? ). ca. 520 BCE, Marble. Height 21 7/8† (55. 3). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 19 Central Portion of the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu, Greece, ca. 600-580 BCE. Limestone. Height 9'2†. (2. 8 m). Archaeological Museum, Corfu, Greece Traditionally, Medusa has been thought of as a protective visual device, but recent approaches argue that she served as a visual commentary on the power of the divinity.She is conceived as a mistress of animals exemplifying the goddess' power and her dominance over Nature. Two large feline creatures flank Medusa, in a he raldic arrangement known from the Lion Gate at Mycenae, and from many earlier Near Eastern examples. To strengthen the sculptures' message, the artist included narrative elements in the pediment as well. In the spaces between and behind the main group, the sculptor inserted a number of subsidiary figures. On either side of Medusa are her children, the winged horse Pegasus, and Chrysaor, who will be born from drops of her blood, shed when Perseus decapitates her.Logically speaking, they cannot yet exist, since Medusa's head is still on her shoulders; and yet their presence in the heraldic arrangement alludes to the future, when Perseus will have claimed the Gorgon's power as his own—just as the sculptor has here, in the service of Artemis. The sculptor has fused two separate moments from a single story, in what is known as a synoptic narrative, bringing the story to life. Two additional groups filled the pediment's corners, possibly depicting Zeus and Poseidon battling the gia nts (a gigantomachy), a moral race who tried to overthrow the gods.Like the central figures, they strike a cautionary note, since the gods destroyed them for their overreaching ambitions. With their reclining pose, the felines fit the shape of the pediment comfortably. Yet in order to fit Pegasus and Chrysaor between Medusa and the felines, and the groups into the corners, the sculptor carved them at a significantly smaller scale than the dominant figures. Later solutions to the pediment's awkward shape suggest that this one, which lacks unity of scale, was not wholly satisfactory.Aside from filling the pediment, Greeks might affix free-standing figures, known as acroteria (often of terra cotta) above the corners and the center of the pediment, softening the severity of its outline (see fig. 5. 21). Greek sculptors also decorate the frieze. In Doric temples, such as at Corfu, where the frieze consists of triglyphs and metopes, they would often decorate the latter with figural scenes . In Ionic temples, the frieze was a continuous band of painted or sculpted decoration.Moreover, in Ionic buildings, female statues or caryatids might substitute for columns to support the roof of a porch, adding a further decorative quality (see figs. 5. 21 and 5. 53). THE SIPHNIAN TREASURY, DELPHI These Ionic features came together in a treasury built at Delphi shortly before 525 BCE by the people of the Ionian island of Siphnos. Treasuries were like miniature temples, used for storing votive gifts; typically, they had an ornate quality. Although the Treasury of the Siphnians no longer stands, archeologists have been able to create a reconstruction from what survives (figs. . 21 and 5. 22). Supporting the architrave of the porch were two caryatids. Above the architrave is a magnificent sculptural frieze. The detail shown here (fig. 5. 22) depicts part of the mythical battle of the Greek gods against the giants, who had challenged divine authority. At the far left, the two lions wh o pull the chariot of the mother goddess Cybele tear apart an anguished giant. In front of them, Apollo and Artemis advance together, shooting arrows into a phalanx of giants. Their weapons were once added to the sculpture in metal.Stripped of his armor, a dead giant lies at their feet. As in the Corfu pediment, the tale is a cautionary one, warning mortals not to aim higher than their natural place in the order of things. Though the subject is mythical, its depiction offers a wealth of detail on contemporary weaponry and military tactics. Astonishingly, the relief is only a few inches deep from front to back. Within that shallow space, the sculptors (more than one hand is discernible) created several planes. The arms and legs of those nearest a viewer are carved in the round.In the second and third layers, the forms become shallower, yet even those farthest from a viewer do not merge into the background. The resulting relationships between figures give a dramatic sense of the turmo il of battle and an intensity of action not seen before in narrative reliefs. As at Corfu, the protagonists fill the sculptural field from top to bottom, enhancing the frieze's power. This is a dominant characteristic of Archaic and Classical Greek art, and with time, sculptors executing pedimental sculpture sought new ways to fill the field while retaining a unity of scale.Taking their cue, perhaps, from friezes such as that found on the Siphnian Treasury, they introduced a variety of poses, and made great strides in depicting the human body in naturalistic motion. This is well illustrated in the pediments of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf visible from Attica (see fig. 5. 12). PEDIMENTS OF THE TEMPLE OF APHAIA AT AEGINA. The temple of Aphaia's original east pediment was probably destroyed by the Persians when they took the island in 490 BCE. The Aeginetans commissioned the present one (fig. 5. 3) after defeating the Persians at the battle of Salamis i n 480 BCE. It depicts the first sack of Troy, by Herakles and Telamon, king of Salamis. The west pediment, which dates from about 510-500 BCE, depicts the second siege of Troy (recounted in The Iliad) by Agamemnon, who was related to Herakles. The pairing of subjects commemorates the important role played by the heroes of Aegina in both battles—and, by extension, at Salamis, where their navy helped win the day. The elevation of historical events to a universal plane through allegory was typical of Greek art.The figures of both pediments are fully in the round, independent of the background that they decorate. Those of the east pediment were found in pieces on the ground. Scholars continue to debate their exact arrangement, but the relative position of each figure within the pediment can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Since the designer introduced a wide range of action poses for the figures, their height, but not their scale, varies to suit the gently sloping sides o f the pedimental field (fig. 5. 23). These variances in height can be used to determine the figures' original positions.In the center stands the goddess Athena, presiding over the battle between Greeks and Trojans that rages on either side of her. Kneeling archers shoot across the pediment to unite its action. The symmetrical arrangement of the poses on the two halves of the pediment creates a balanced design, so that while each figure has a clear autonomy, it also exists within a governing ornamental pattern. If we compare a fallen warrior from the west pediment (fig. 5. 24) with its counterpart from the later east pediment (fig. 5. 25) we see some indication of the extraordinary advances sculptors made toward naturalism during the decades that separate them.As they sink to the ground in death, both figures present a clever solution to filling the awkward corner space. Yet while the earlier figure props himself up on one arm, only a precariously balance shield supports the later wa rrior, whose full weight seems to pull him irresistibly to the ground. Both sculptors aimed to contort the dying warrior's body in the agonies of his death: The earlier sculptor crosses the warrior's legs in an awkward pose, while the later sculptor more convincingly twists the body from the waist, so that the left shoulder moves into a new plane.Although the later warrior's anatomy still does not fully respond to his pose (note, for instance, how little the pectorals stretch to accommodate the strenuous motion of the right arm), his body is more modeled and organic than the earlier warrior's. He also breaks from the head-on stare of his predecessor, turning his gaze to the ground that confronts him. The effect suggests introspection: The inscrutable smiling mask of the earlier warrior yields to the suffering and emotion of a warrior in his final moments. Vase Painting: Art of the SymposiumIn vase painting, the new Archaic style would replace the Orientalizing phase as workshops in Athens and other centers produced extremely fine wares, painted with scenes from mythology, legend, and everyday life. The vases illustrated in these pages were used to hold wine, but were not meant for everyday use. The Greeks generally poured their wine from plainer, unadorned vases. Decorated vases were reserved for important occasions, like the symposium (symposion), an exclusive drinking party for men and courtesans; wives and other respectable citizen women were not included.Participants reclined on couches around the edges of a room, and a master of ceremonies filled their cups from a large painted mixing bowl (a krater) in the middle of the room. Music, poetry, storytelling, and word games accompanied the festivities. Often the event ended in lovemaking, which is frequently depicted on drinking cups. Yet there was also a serious side to symposia, as described by Plato and Xenophon, 5. 20 Reconstruction drawing of the west front of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu (after Rodenw aldt) 5. 21 Reconstruction drawing of the Treasury of the Siphnians.Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, ca. 525 BCE 5. 22 Battle of the Gods and Giants, from the north frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians, Delphi. ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 26† (66 cm). Archaeological Museum, Delphi 5. 23 Reconstruction drawing of the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (after Ohly) 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. Length 5†² 2 1/2† (1. 59 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. Length 5†² 2 1/2† (1. 9 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich centering on debates about politics, ethics, and morality. The great issues that the Greeks pondered in their philosophy, literature, and theater—the nature of virtue, the value of an individual man's life, or mortal relations with the gods, to name a few—were mirrored in, and prompted by, the images with which they surrounded themselves. After the middle of the sixth century BCE, many of the finest vessels bear signatures of the artists who made them, indicating the pride that potters and painters alike took in their work.In many cases, vase painters had such distinctive styles that scholars can recognize their work even without a signature, and modern names are used to identify them. Dozens of vases (in one instance, over 200) might survive by the same hand, allowing scholars to trace a single painter's development over many years. The difference between Orientalizing and Archaic vase painting is largely one of technique. On the aryballos from Corinth (see fig. 5. 5), the figures appear partly as solid silhouettes, partly in outline, or as a combination of the two.Toward the end of the seventh century BCE, influenced by Corinthian products, Attic vase painters began to work in the black-figured technique : The entire design was painted in black silhouette against the reddish clay; and then the internal details were incised into the design with a needle. Then, white and purple were painted over the black to make chosen areas stand out. The technique lent itself to a two-dimensional and highly decorative effect. This development marks the beginning of an aggressive export industry, the main consumers of which were the Etruscans.Vast numbers of black-figured vases were found in Etruscan tombs. Thus, although in terms of conception these vases (and later red-figured vessels) represent a major chapter in Greek (and specifically Athenian) art, if we think about their actual use, painted vases can be considered a major component of Etruscan culture, both visual and funerary. A fine example of the black-figured technique is an Athenian amphora signed by Exekias as both potter and painter, dating to the third quarter of the sixth century BCE (fig. 5. 26). The painting shows the Homeric heroe s Achilles and Ajax playing dice.The episode does not exist in surviving literary sources, and its appearance here points to the wide field of traditions that inspired Exekias. The two figures lean on their spears; their shields are stacked behind them against the inside of a campaign tent. The black silhouettes create a rhythmical composition, symmetrical around the table in the center. Within the black paint, Exekias has incised a wealth of detail, focusing especially upon the cloaks of the warriors; their intricately woven texture contrasts with the lustrous blackness of their weapons. The extraordinary power of this scene derives from the tension within it.The warriors have stolen a moment of relaxation during a fierce war; even so, poised on the edge of their stools, one heel raised as if to jump at any moment, their poses are edgy. An inscription in front of Ajax, on the right, reads â€Å"three†, as if he is calling out his throw. Achilles, who in his helmet slightly d ominates the scene, answers with â€Å"four,† making him the winner. Yet many a Greek viewer would have understood the irony of the scene, for when they return to battle, Achilles will die, and Ajax will be left to bear his friend's lifeless body back to the Greek camp, before falling on his own sword in despair.Indeed, Exekias himself would paint representations of the heroes' tragic deaths. This amphora is the first known representation of the gaming scene, which subsequently became very popular, suggesting that individual vase painting did not exist in artistic isolation; painters responded to one another's work in a close and often clever dialogue. Despite its decorative potential, the silhouettelike black-figured technique limited the artist to incision for detail. Toward the end of the sixth century BCE, painters developed the reverse procedure, leaving the figures red and filling in the background.This red-figured technique gradually replaced the older method betwee 52 0 and 500 BCE. The effects of the change would be felt increasingly in the decades to come, but they are already discernible on an amphora of about 510-500 BCE, signed by Euthymides (fig. 5. 27). No longer is the scene so dependent on profiles. The painter's new freedom with the brush translates into a freedom of movement in the dancing revelers he represents. They cavort in a range of poses, twisting their bodies and showing off Euthymides' confidence in rendering human anatomy.The shoulder blades of the central figure, for instance, are not level, but instead reflect the motion of his raised arm. The turning poses allow Euthymides to tackle foreshortening, as he portrays the different planes of the body (the turning shoulders, for instance) on a single surface. This was an age of intensive and self-conscious experimentation; indeed, so pleased was Euthymides with his painting that he inscribed it with a taunting challenge to a fellow painter, â€Å"As never Euphronios†.On a slightly later kylix (wine cup) by Douris, dating to 490-480 BCE, Eos, the goddess of dawn, tenderly lifts a limp body of her dead son. Memnon, whom Achilles killed after their mothers sought the intervention of Zeus (fig. 5. 28). Douris traces the contours of limbs beneath the drapery, and balances vigorous outlines with more delicate secondary strokes, such as those indicating the anatomical details of Memnon's body contrasts with the lift of Eos' wings, an ironic commentary, perhaps, on how Zeus decided between the two warriors by weighing their souls on a scale that tipped against Memnon.After killing him, Achilles stripped off Memnon's armor as a gesture of humiliation, and where the figures overlap in the image, the gentle folds of Eos' flowing chiton set off Memnon's nudity. His vulnerability in turn underlines his mother's desperate grief at being unable to help her son. At the core of the image is raw emotion. Douris tenderly exposes the suffering caused by intrasigent fat e, and the callousness of the gods who intervene in mortal lives. As we saw on the pediment from Aegina, depictions of suffering, and how humans respond to it, are among the most dramatic developments of late Archaic art.In this mythological scene, Athenians may have seen a reflection of themselves during the horrors of the Persian Wars. Indeed, the vase is brought into the realm of everyday life by its inscription, with the signatures of both painter and potter, as well as a dedication typical of Greek vases: â€Å"Hermogenes is beautiful. † THE CLASSICAL AGE The beginning of the fifth century BCE brought crisis. A number of Ionian cities rebelled against their Persian overlords.